LTC 404-2023 CITY OF PEMBROKE PINES RESOLUTION NO. 3830M IA M I BEA C H
OFFICE OF THE CITY CLERK
No. 404-2023
LETTER TO COMMISSION
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
Mayor Dan Gelber and Members o~he /ity Commission
Rafael E. Granado, City Clerk 721
September 13, 2023
CITY OF PEMBROKE PINES RESOLUTION NO. 3830
Attached for your information is Resolution No. 3830, adopted by the Mayor and City
Commission of City of Pembroke Pines on August 16, 2023.
A RESOLUTION OF THE CITY COMMISSION OF THE CITY OF PEMBROKE
PINES, FLORIDA, STRONGLY URGING BROWARD COUNTY AS THE OWNER
AND MANAGER OF NORTH PERRY AIRPORT TO FUND, IMPLEMENT, AND
PRODUCE THE FINDINGS OF A STUDY TO ASSESS THE LEAD
CONCENTRATION LEVELS IN AND AROUND THE AIRPORT AND WITHIN THE
SURROUNDING RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITY; PROVIDING FOR
TRANSMITTAL; PROVIDING FOR CONFLICTS; PROVIDING FOR
SEVERABILITY; PROVIDING FOR AN EFFECTIVE DATE.
The City of Pembroke Pines Clerk has requested that a copy of this Resolution be provided to
the Miami Beach Mayor and Commissioners.
If you have any questions, please contact the Office of the City Clerk at 305.673. 7 411.
REG/le
Attachment
F:\CLER\$ALL\LILIA\L TC's - Transmittal's\Pembroke Pines\Pembroke Pines Resolution 3830.docx
PROPOSED RESOLUTION NO. 2023-R-25
RESOLUTION NO. 3830
A RESOLUTION OF THE CITY COMMISSION OF THE CITY OF
PEMBROKE PINES, FLORIDA, STRONGLY URGING BROWARD
COUNTY AS THE OWNER AND MANAGER OF NORTH PERRY
AIRPORT TO FUND, IMPLEMENT, AND PRODUCE THE FINDINGS
Hu OF ASTUDY TO ASSESS THE LEAD CONCENTRATION LEVELS Ihv I
AND AROUND THE AIRPORT AND W ITHIN THE SURROUNDING
RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITY; PROVIDING FOR TRA NSMITTAL;
PROVIDING FOR CONFLICTS; PROVIDING FOR SEVERA BILITY;
PROVIDING FOR AN EFFECTIVE DATE.
WHEREAS, the North Perry Airport is a general aviation airport located
entirely within the City of Pembroke Pines that is owned and managed by Broward
County; and
WHEREAS, The North Perry Airport provides in its Airport Master Record filed
with the Federal Aviation Administration on June 15, 2023 that there are 411 single
and multiengine aircrafts based at the airport; and
WH EREAS, 195,192 total aircraft operations were reported by the Airport in
Fiscal Year 2021; and
WHEREAS, as indicated by Register Volume 87, Numb er 199 of the National
Archives and Records Administration's Office of the Federal Register, attach ed hereto
as Exhibit "A", the Environmental Protection Agency issued a proposed
endangerment finding on October 17, 2022 providing that lead emissions from aircraft
engines that operate on leaded fuel cause or contribute to air pollution that may be
reasonably anticipated to endanger public health and welfare under the Federal Clean
Air Act; and
Page 1 of s
PRO PO SED RESO LUTIO N NO . 2023-R -25
RESO LUTIO N NO . 3830
W HEREAS, the Environmental Protection Agency has cited piston engine
aircrafts operating on leaded fuel as the largest remaining aggregate source of lead
emissions to air in the United States; and
WHEREAS, the types of planes operating at the North Perry Airport are of the
kind that are usually fueled by leaded gasoline; and
WHEREAS, there is broad scientific consensus on the lasting, damaging
effects of lead exposure on all people, but considerably children; and
WHEREAS, the American Academy of Pediatrics has provided that lead
toxicity results in substantial population-level effects on children's intellectual abilities,
academic abilities, problem behaviors, and birth weight; and
WHEREAS, the Environmental Protection Agency has noted that there is no
evidence of a threshold below which there are no harmful effects on cognition from
lead exposure; and
WHEREAS, the North Perry Airport is abutted by residential and commercial
uses on all four sides; and
WHEREAS, the North Perry Airport offers leaded and unleaded fuel to aircraft
operators on a daily basis; and
WHEREAS, the Federal Aviation Administration recently published an
Approved Model List, attached hereto as Exhibit "B", approving the use of G1 00UL,
an unleaded fuel that is compatible for use in spark ignition piston aircraft engines, as
more particularly defined and further described within the FAQ portion of the fuel
Page 2 of s
PROPOSED RESOLUTION NO. 2023-R-25
RESOLUTION NO. 3830
provider's website at https://www.g100ul.com/fag.html; and G100UL is expected to be
available in South Florida upon the completion of transportation and storage logistics
at Port Everglades for the fuel; and
W HEREAS, as reflected in the Meeting Minutes for the North Perry Airport
Community Advisory Committee's (the "NPACAC") December 14, 2022 meeting,
attached hereto as Exhibit "C", the NPACAC voted unanimously, following a
presentation from the North Perry Airport Manager, attached hereto as Exh ibit "D", to
request that the Broward County Aviation Department budget funds toward a specific
benchmark study relating to the air quality, including lead levels, and noise pollution
levels in accordance with FAA guidelines within the residential communities
surrounding the North Perry Airport; and
WHEREAS, the City Commission, as a matter of public concern, and in the
best interest of the health, safety and wellness of its residents, has determined that a
comprehensive analysis of the lead concentration levels in and around the North Perry
Airport and within the surrounding residential community is necessary for the
protection of its residents; and
WHEREAS, the City Commission strongly urges Broward County to fund,
implement, and produce the findings of a comprehensive study of the air pollution
levels, including lead concentration levels, present in and around the North Perry
Airport and within the surrounding residential community.
Page 3 of s
P R O P O S E D R E S O L U T IO N N O. 2023-R-2 5
R E S O L U T IO N N O . 38 30
N O W , TH E R E FO R E , B E IT R ES O LV E D B Y TH E C IT Y C O M M IS S IO N O F TH E
C IT Y O F P E M B R O K E P IN E S , F L O R ID A , A S FO LLO W S :
confirmed as being true and correct and are hereby made a specific part of this
Resolution.
Se ctio n 2 . The City Commission hereby strongly urges and formally requests
that Broward County fund, implement, and report a comprehensive study of the air
pollutions levels, including the lead concentration levels, present in and around the
North Perry Airport and within the surrounding residential community.
S e c tio n 3. The City Clerk is directed to send a certified copy of this Resolution
to the Broward County Mayor, the Broward County Board of County Commissioners,
and the Broward County Administrator.
S e c tio n 4 . All resolutions or parts of resolutions in conflict herewith are hereby
repealed to the extent of such conflict.
S e ctio n 5. If any clause, section, other part or application of this Resolution is
held by any court of competent jurisdiction to be unconstitutional or invalid, in part or
application, it shall not affect the validity of the remaining portions or applications of
this Resolution.
S e ctio n 6. This Resolution shall become effective immediately upon its
passage and adoption.
Page 4 ofS
PR OP O SED R E SOL U TI O N NO . 2023-R -25
RE SO LUTIO N NO . 3830
PAS S E D A ND A DO P TED BY THE CITY COMMISSION OF THE CITY OF
PEMBROKE PINES, FLORIDA, THIS 16TH DAY OF AUGUST, 2023.
CITY O PEMB J' KE PINES, FLORIDA
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ATTEST:
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APPROVED AS TO FORM:
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Pages of s
Federal Register
CITY COMMISSION EXHIBIT A
62753
slide Tic rte~or option lat tley
thought would be best for them. Under what
circumstances, if any, should veterans retain
opportunities to select from VA loss-
mitigation options? How would giving
veterans the ability to select from VA loss-
mitigation options impact servicers? IfVA
were to switch to a prescribed order of Joss-
mitigation options that servicers must follow,
what limitations, if any, should be placed on
veterans' ability to select from them?
4.puring the COVID-19 pandemic, certain
loss-mitigation options were offered without
the requirement of collecting financial
information. Moving beyond the pandemic,
under what circumstances should VA require
servicers to collect financial information
before a loss-mitigation option is selected?
Under what circumstances might a trial
payment plan serve as a substitute for the
collection of financial information?
Questions Related to Loan Deferment,
VAPCP, and COVID -19 Refund
Modifications
5. How should VA develop a
loandeferment option that would assist
veterans without placing undue burden on
servicers? For example, if VA were to
incentivize a hybrid loan deferment/
repayment plan in which servicers would
defer the missed principal and interest and
establish a loan repayment plan for missed
taxes and insurance, would that address
potential concerns related to short-term lost
income from deferring missed mortgage
payments? For veterans, what consumer
protection concerns should VA be aware of in
considering a loan deferment loss- mitigation
option?
6. In what way(s), if any, should
VAuse the VAPCP and/or COVID19 Refund
Modification after the COVID- 19 national
emergency? VA is particularly interested in
data and evidence showing whether the
VAPCP and/or COVID-19 Refund
Modification programs have assisted veterans,
servicers, and taxpayers.
7. What challenges would exist
for veterans, servicers, holders, and VA, if VA
were to develop a loss-mitigation option
similar to the VAPCP, but with a requirement
for repayment at a low interest rate (rather
than the zero percent interest rate under the
VAPCP)? What hurdles might servicers face
in executing such loan documents on behalf
of VA? What if VA required servicers to
service such loans on VA's behalf?
8. Would a low-interest second
loanoption similar to the VAPCP be more
helpful to veterans and/or servicers than a
loan deferment loss-mitigation option, and
what data and evidence exist to support your
response? What sort of financial evaluation
would be appropriate to determine whether a
low- interest second loan would be an
appropriate loss-mitigation option for a
/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
fern, as opposa, .a#G T s- TIE.TOTT7ALT1TT- TT-"MI,5z-
mitigation options at 38 CFR 36.4319? BILLING CODE 8320-01-P
9. What, if any, limitations should
VAplace on a deferment-style loss- mitigation
option, including minimum/ maximum
deferment amounts, lifetime uses, etc.?
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY
Questions Related to Incentive Payments 40 CFR Parts 87, 1031, and 1068
10. What kind of incentive [EPA-HQ--OAR--2022--0389; FRL--5934--01--
paymentmight be appropriate to make loan OAR]
deferment a more viable option for servicers an 2g9.jrq
and VA? What kind of incentive payment
might be appropriate for a loss-mitigation Proposed Finding That Lead
option similar to the VAPCP or COVID-19 Emissions From Aircraft Engines That Refund Modification?
Operate on Leaded Fuel Cause or 11. How could VA structure anincentive Contribute to Air Pollution That May payment that does not encourage servicers to
use one of these loss-mitigation options if Reasonably Be Anticipated To
more financially feasible options are available Endanger Public Health and Welfare
to assist the veteran? AGENCY: Environmental Protection Agency
Q u estion s R elated to In vestor R eq u irem en ts (EPA).
ACTION: Proposed action.
12. What, if any, Government
National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae)
specific investor requirements should VA
consider when evaluating changes to VA loss-
mitigation options, including the introduction
of a deferment-style loss-mitigation option?
E xecutive O rd er s 12866 an d 13 563
Executive Orders 12866 and 13563 direct
agencies to assess the costs and benefits of
available regulatory alternatives and, when
regulation is necessary, to select regulatory
approaches that maximize net benefits
(including potential economic, environmental,
public health and safety effects, and other
advantages; distributive impacts; and equity).
Executive Order 13563 (Improving
Regulation and Regulatory Review)
emphasizes the importance of quantifying
both costs and benefits, reducing costs,
harmonizing rules, and promoting flexibility.
The Office of Information and Regulatory
Affairs has determined that this rule is a
significant regulatory action under Executive
Order 12866. The Regulatory Impact Analysis
associated with this rulemaking can be found
as a supporting document at
www.regulations.gov
Sign in g A u thority
Denis McDonough, Secretary of Veterans
Affairs, approved this document on October
11, 2022, and authorized the undersigned to
sign and submit the document to the Office of
the Federal Register for publication
electronically as an official document of the
Department of Veterans Affairs.
Jeffrey M. Martin,
Assistant Director, Office of Regulation Policy &
Management, Office of General Counsel,
Department of Veterans Affairs.
SUMMARY: In this action, the Administrator is
proposing to find that lead air pollution may
reasonably be anticipated to endanger the
public health and welfare within the meaning
of section 231 (a) of the Clean Air Act. The
Administrator is also proposing to find that
engine emissions of lead from certain aircraft
cause or contribute to the lead air pollution
that may reasonably be anticipated to
endanger public health and welfare under
section 231 (a) of the Clean Air Act.
DATES:
Comments: Written comments must be
received on or before January 17, 2023.
Public Hearing: The EPA plans to hold a
virtual public hearing on November 1, 2022.
See SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION for
information on registering for a public
hearing.
ADDRESSES: You may submit your
comments, identified by Docket ID No. EPA-
HQ-OAR-2022-0389, by any of the
following methods:
Federal eRulemaking Portal:
https://www.regulations.gov (our preferred
method). Follow the online instructions for
submitting comments.
Email: a-and-r-docket@epa.gov
Include Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR--
2022-0389 in the subject line of the message.
Mail: U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA Docket Center,
OAR, Docket EPA-HQ--OAR-2022-
0389. Mail Code 28221T, 1200 Pennsylvania
Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20460.
Hand Delivery or Courier (by
scheduled appointment only): EPA Docket
Center, WJC West Building,
Room 3 334, 130 I Constitution Avenue
NW, Washington, DC 20004. The Docket
Center's hours of operations are 8:30
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
a.m.-4:30 p.m., Monday-Friday (except other file sharing system). For additional
federal holidays). submission methods, the full EPA public
Instructions: All submissions received must comment policy, information about CBI, PBI,
include the Docket ID No. for this action. or multimedia submissions, and general
Comments received may be posted without guidance on making effective comments,
change to https:llwww.regulations.gov/, please visit https://
including any personal information provided. www.epa.gov/docketslcommenting-epa-
For detailed instructions on sending comments dockets.
and additional information on the process for Documents to which the EPA refers in this
this action, see the "Public Participation" proposed action are available online at
heading of the SUPPLEMENTARY https://www.regulations.gov/ in the docket for
INFORMATION section of this document. this action (Docket EPA-HQ OAR-2022--
1 Public Hearing. EPA plans to hold a virtual 0389), To access reference documents in- identify these needs when you register for th
public hearing for this action. Please refer to person and for additional assistance, please hearing no later than October 24, 2022. The
Participation in Virtual refer to the following instructions. EPA may not be able to arrange
Public Hearing in the SUPPLEMENTARY The EPA plans to hold a virtual hearing on accommodations without advanced notice.
INFORMATION section of this document for November 1, 2022. This hearing will be held
additional information. using Zoom. In order to attend the virtual
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: public hearing, all attendees (including those
who will not be presenting verbal testimony)
must register in advance. Upon publication of
this document in the Federal Register, the
EPA will begin registering speakers for the
hearing. To register to speak at the virtual
hearing, please use the instructions at https://
www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions- vehicles-
and-engines/regulations-lead- emissions-
aircraft. If you have questions regarding
registration, consult the person listed in the
preceding FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
CONTACT section of this document. The last
day to register to speak at the hearing will be
October 31, 2022. Prior to the hearing, the
EPA will post a general agenda that will list
registered speakers in approximate order at:
https://www.epa.gov/ regulations-emissions-
vehicles-and- engines/regulations-lead-
emissions- aircraft. The EPA will make every
effort to follow the schedule as closely as
possible on the day of the hearing; however,
please plan for the hearings to tun either ahead
and supporting information submitted during
the comment period will be considered with
the same weight as oral testimony and
supporting information presented at the public
hearing.
If you require the services of a translator or
special accommodations such as audio
description, please
Marion Hoyer, Office of Transportation and
Air Quality, Assessment and Standards
Division (ASD),
Environmental Protection Agency; Telephone
number: (734) 214 4513; Email address:
hoyer.marion@epa.gov
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
A. Public Participation
Written Comments: Submit your comments,
identified by Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-
2022 0389, at https://www.regulations.gov
( our preferred method), or the other methods
identified in the ADDRESSES section of this
document. Once submitted, comments cannot
be edited or withdrawn from the docket. The
EPA may publish any comment received to its
public docket. Do not submit electronically
any information you consider to be
Confidential Business Information (CBI),
Proprietary Business Information (PBI), or
other information whose disclosure is
62754
B. General Information
Does this action apply to me?
Regulated Entities: In this action, the EPA
is proposing to make endangerment and cause
or contribute findings for the lead air pollution
and engine emissions of lead from certain
aircraft. The classes of aircraft engines and of
aircraft relevant to this proposed action are
referred to as "covered aircraft engines" and
as "covered aircraft," respectively throughout
this document. Covered aircraft engines in this
context means any aircraft engine that is
capable of using leaded aviation gasoline.
Covered aircraft in this context means all
aircraft and ultralight vehicles' equipped with
covered engines. Covered aircraft would, for
example, include smaller piston-engine
aircraft such as the Cessna 172 (single-engine
aircraft) and the Beechcraft Baron G58 (twin-
engine aircraft), as well as the largest piston-
engine aircraft-the Curtiss C--46 and the
Douglas DC-6. Other examples of covered
aircraft would include rotorcraft,2 such as the
Robinson RA44 helicopter, light-sport aircraft,
and sell covered aircraft engines and aircraft. Categories that may be include, but are not limited to, those covered aircraft in the
United States and regulated in a future regulatory action listed here: those who own or operate covered
Category NAICS" code SIC"code Examples of potentially affected entities
Industry ................... 3364412 3724 Manufacturers of new aircraft engines.
Industry ................... 336411 3721 Manufacturers of new aircraft.
Industry ................... 481219 4522 Aircraft charter services (i.e., general purpose aircraft used for a variety of specialty
air and flying services). Aviation clubs providing a variety of air transportation
activities to the general public.
Industry ................... 611512 8249 and 8299 Flight Training.
North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). Standard
Industrial Classification (SIC) code.
restricted by statute. Multimedia submissions
(audio, video, etc.) must be accompanied by a
written comment. The written comment is
considered the official comment and should
include discussion of all points you wish to
make. The EPA will generally not consider
comments or comment contents located
outside of the primary submission (including
such content located on the web, cloud, or
The FAA regulates ultralight vehicles under 14
CFR part 103.
of schedule or behind schedule.
The EPA anticipates that each commenter
will have 5 minutes to provide oral testimony.
The EPA recommends submitting the text of
your oral testimony as written comments to
the docket for this action. The EPA may ask
clarifying questions during the oral
presentations but will not respond to the
presentations at that time. Written statements
and ultralight vehicles equipped with piston
engines. Because the majority of covered
aircraft are piston-engine powered, this
document focuses on those aircraft (in some
contexts the EPA refers to these same engines
as reciprocating engines). All such references
and examples used in this document are
covered aircraft as defined in this paragraph.
Rotorcraft encompass helicopters, gyroplanes, and any
other heavier-than-air aircraft that depend principally for
support in flight on the lift generated by one or more rotors.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
The proposed findings in this action, if children may arise because infants and
finalized, would not themselves apply new children generally eat more food, drink more
requirements to entities other than the EPA water and breathe more air relative to their
and the Federal Aviation Administration size than adults do, and consequently may be
(FAA). Specifically, if the EPA issues final exposed to relatively higher amounts of
findings that lead emissions from covered contaminants. In addition, normal childhood
aircraft engines cause or contribute to air activity, such as putting hands in mouths or
pollution which may reasonably be anticipated playing on the ground, can result in exposures
to endanger public health or welfare, then the to contaminants that adults do not typically
EPA would, under section 231 of the Clean have. Furthermore, environmental
Air Act, promulgate aircraft engine emission contaminants may pose health risks specific to
standards for that air pollutant. In contrast to children because children's bodies are still
thc findings, those standards would apply to developing. For example, during periods of
and have an effect on other entities outside the rapid growth such as fetal development,
federal government. Entities potentially infancy and puberty, their developing systems
interested in this proposed action include and organs may be more easily harmed.4
those that manufacture This table is not Protecting children's health from
intended to be exhaustive, but rather provides environmental risks is fundamental to the
a guide for readers regarding potentially EPA's mission, Since the inception of
regulated entities likely to be interested in this Executive Order 13045, the understanding of
proposed action. This table lists examples of children's environmental health has broadened
the types of entities that the EPA is now aware to include conception, infancy, early
of that could potentially have an interest in childhood and through adolescence until 21
this proposed action. If the EPA issues final years of age.5 Because behavioral and
affirmative findings under section 23 1(a) of physiological characteristics can affect
the Clean Air Act regarding lead, the EPA children's environmental health risks,
would then undertake a future notice and childhood and children's health is viewed with
comment rulemaking to issue emission an understanding of the concept of
standards, and the FAA would be required to "lifestages," which recognize unique growth
prescribe regulations to ensure compliance and developmental periods through which all
with these emissions standards pursuant to humans pass.6
section 232 of the Clean Air Act. Such This document includes discussion and
findings also would trigger the FAA's analysis that is focused particularly on
statutory mandate pursuant to 49 US.C. children. For example, as described in
44 714 to prescribe standards for the Sections III.A and V of this document, the
composition or chemical or physical scientific evidence has long been established
properties of an aircraft fuel or fuel additive to demonstrating that young children ( due to
control or eliminate aircraft emissions which rapid growth and development of the brain)
EPA has decided endanger public health or are vulnerable to a range of neurological
welfare under section 231(a) of the Clean Air effects resulting from exposure to lead. Low
Act. Other types of entities not listed in the levels of lead in young children's blood have
table could also be interested and potentially been linked to adverse effects on intellect,
affected by subsequent actions at some future concentration and academic achievement and
time. If you have any questions regarding the as the EPA has previously noted "there is no
scope of this proposed action, consult the evidence of a threshold below which there are
person listed in the preceding FOR FURTHER no harmful effects on cognition from (lead)
INFORMATION CONTACT section of this exposure. "7 Evidence suggests that while
document. some neurocognitive effects of lead in
C. Children's Health children may be transient, some lead-related
cognitive effects may be irreversible and
persist into adulthood, potentially contributing
to lower educational attainment and financial
well-being. 8 The 2013 Lead ISA notes that in
epidemiologic studies, postnatal (early
childhood) blood lead levels are consistently
associated with cognitive function decrements
in children and adolescents.9 In Section II.A.5
Executive Order 130453 requires agencies to
identify and assess health and safety risks that
may disproportionately affect children and
ensure that activities address disproportionate
risks to children. Children may be more
vulnerable to environmental exposures and/or
the associated health effects, and therefore
more at risk than adults. These risks to
3 E.O. 13045. Protection of Children From
Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks. 62 FR 19885
(April 23, 1997).
EP A (2006) A Framework for Assessing Health Risks of
Environmental Exposures to Children.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-05/093F, 2006. ° EPA. Memorandum: Issuance of EPA's 2021 Policy on
Children's Health. October 5, 2021. Available at
https://www.epa.gov/system/files/ docents/2021-10/2021-
policy-on-childrens- health.pdf.
EPA. "Childhood Lifestages relating to Children's
Environmental Health." Oct. 25, 2021. Retrieved from
http.s://www.epa.gov/children childhood-life.stages-relating-
childrens- environ mental-health on Nov. 22, 2021.
7 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary "Effects
of Pb Exposure in Children." pp. lxxvii- lxxxviii.
EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013. Sec also, National Toxicology
62755
of this document, we describe the number of
children living near and attending school near
airports and provide a proximity analysis of
the potential for greater representation of
children in the near-airport environment
compared with neighboring areas.
D. Environmental Justice
Executive Order 12898 establishes federal
executive policy on environmental justice. It
directs federal agencies, to the greatest extent
practicable and permitted by law, to make
achieving environmental justice part of their
mission by identifying and addressing, as
appropriate, disproportionately high and
adverse human health or environmental
effects of their programs, policies, and
activities on people of color populations and
low-income populations in the United
States. "V The EPA defines environmental
justice as the. fair treatment and meaningful
involvement of all people regardless of race,
color, national origin, or income with respect
to the development, implementation, and
enforcement of environmental laws,
regulations, and policies.11
Executive Order 14008 also calls on federal
agencies to make achieving environmental
justice part of their missions "by developing
programs, policies, and activities to address
the disproportionately high and adverse
human health, environmental, climate- related
and other cumulative impacts on
disadvantaged communities, as well as the
accompanying economic challenges of such
impacts. "12 It also declares a policy "to secure
environmental justice and spur economic
opportunity for disadvantaged communities
that have been historically marginalized and
overburdened by pollution and under-
investment in housing, transportation, water
and wastewater infrastructure and health
care." Under Executive Order 13563, federal
agencies may consider equity, human dignity,
fairness, and distributional considerations,
where appropriate and permitted by law."?
The United States has made substantial
progress in reducing lead exposure, but
disparities remain along racial, ethnic, and
socioeconomic lines. For example, blood lead
levels in children from low-income
households remain higher than those in
children from higher income households, and
the
059 FR 7629 (Feb. 16, 1994).
Program (NTP) (2012) NTP Monograph: Health Effects of
Low-Level Lead.
Available at https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go36443.
" EPA (2013) 1SA for Lead. Executive Summary "Effects
of Pb Exposure in Children." pp. lxxxvii- lxxxviii.
EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
"EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.9.4. "Pb Exposure
and Neurodevelopmental Deficits in Children." p. 1-75.
EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
'Fair treatment means that "no group of people should
bear a disproportionate burden of environmental harms and
risks, including those resulting from the negative
environmental
consequences of industrial, governmental and commercial
operations or programs and policies." Meaningful
involvement occurs when "1) potentially affected
populations have an app ropri ate opportunity to participate
in decisions about a proposed activity [e.g, nlemaking]
that will affect their environment and/or health; 2) the
public's contribution can influence the regulatory Agency's
decision; 3) the concerns of all participants involved will be
considered in the decision-making process; and 4) [the EPA
will] seek ont and facilitate the involvement of those
potentially affected." A potential EJ concern is defined as
"the actual or potential lack of fair treatment or meaningful
involvement of minority populations, low-income
populations, Tribes, and indigenous peoples in the
development, implementation and enforcement of
environmental laws, regulations and policies." See, EPA's
Environmental Justice During the Development of an
Action. Available at https://www.epa.gov/sites/
default/files/2015-06/documents/considering-ej-in-
rulemaking-guide-final.pdf. See also hups://
www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice.
'6 FR 7619 (Feb. 1, 2021).
76 FR 3821 (Jan. 18, 2011).
m ost exposed Black children still have higher
blood le ad levels than the m ost exposed non-
Hi spanic W hite chil dren.1415 D epending on the
levels and associated risk, such blood lead
levels m ay le ad to li fe long health effects and
bar ri ers to social an d econ om ic w el l-b eing. ""
In this action, the E PA is undertaking an
evaluation, under section 23l(a)(2)(A ) of the
C le an A ir A ct, of w hether em issions ofl ead
fr om engines in covered aircra ft m ay cause or
co ntribute to ai r pollutio n that m ay reasonably
be anticipated to endanger publi c health or
w elfa re. We are not pro posing em ission
standards at this tim e, and therefo re, our
considera tion of enviro nm ental justice is
fo cused on descri bing populations li ving near
airports in the U nited States. Section IL.A.5 of
this document, and the Technical Support
Document17 for this action describe the
scientific evidence and analyses conducted by
the EPA that provide information about the
disparity in residential location for some low-
incom e populations, people of color and som e
indigenous peoples in the U nited States,
particular ly A lask a N atives, wi th regar d to
th eir proxi m ity to som e airports w here
covered aircra ft opera te. T he info rm ation
presented in Section II .A .5 of this docum ent
indicates that there is a greater prevalence of
people of color and of low -incom e
populations w ithin 500 m eters or one
kilom eter of som e airport s com pared w ith
people living m ore distant. If such differences
w ere to contribute to dispro portionate and
adverse im pacts on people of color and low -
incom e populations, they could indicate a
potential enviro nm ental justice concern . Table
of Contents
I. Executive Sum m ary
As noted in Section IV.A of this notice, the lead air
pollution that we are considering in this proposed finding
can occur as elemental lead or in lead-containing
compounds.
'EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 5.4.
"Summary." pp. 5-40 through 5-42. EPA, Washington,
DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
'EPA (2022) "America's Children and the
Environment." Summary of blood lead levels in children
updated in 2022, available at https://
www.epa.gov/americaschildrenenvironment/ biomonitoring-
lead. Data source: Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Report on Human
Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Blood Lead (2011-
2018). Updated March 2022. Available at
https://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/report/pdf?
group2_1.RXRPR_0//-ppdf
6EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.9.1. "Public Health
Significance." p. 1-68; Section 1.9.5. "Reversibility and
Persistence ofNeurotoxic Effects of Pb." p. 1-76. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA600/R-- 10/075E, 2013.
7EPA (2022) Technical Support Document (TSD) for the
EPA's Proposed Finding that Lead Emissions from Aircraft
Engines that Operate on Leaded Fuel Cause or Contribute to
Air Pollution that May
Reasonably Be Anticipated to Endanger Public
Health and Welfare. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-- 420-R--
22-025, 2022. Available in the docket for this action.
II. Overview and Context for This Proposal
A. Background Information Helpful to
Understanding This Proposal
I. Piston-Engine Aircraft and the Use of Leaded
Aviation Gasoline
2. Emissions of Lead From Piston-Engine Aircraft
3. Concentrations of Lead in Air
Attributable to Emissions From Piston-
Engine Aircraft
4. Fate and Transport of Emissions of Lead From
Piston-Engine Aircraft
5. Consideration ofEnviromnental Justice and
Children in Populations Residing Near Airports
B. Federal Actions To Reduce Lead Exposure
C. History of Lead Endangerment Petitions for
Rulemaking and the EPA Responses
III. Legal Framework for This Action
A. Statutory Text and Basis for This Proposal
B, Considerations for the Endangerment and
Cause or Contribute Analyses Under Section
231(a)2)A)
C. Regulatory Authority for Emission
Standards
IV. The Proposed Endangerment Finding
Under CAA Section 231
A. Scientific Basis of the Endangerment Finding
I. Lead Air Pollution
2. Health Effects and Lead Air Pollution
3. Welfare Effects and Lead Air Pollution
B. Proposed Endangerment Finding
V. The Proposed Cause or Contribute Finding
Under CAA Section 231
A. Proposed Definition of the Air Pollutant
B. The Data Used To Evaluate the Proposed
Cause or Contribute Finding
C. Proposed Cause or Contribution Finding for
Lead
''EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/600/R-5/144aF, 2006.
62756
VI. Statutory Authority and Executive Order
Reviews
A. Executive Order 12866: Regulatory
Planning and Review and Executive
Order 13563: Improving Regulation and
Regulatory Review
B. Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA)
C, Regulatory Flexibility Act (RFA)
D. Unfunded Mandates Reform Act
(UMRA)
E. Executive Order 13132: Federalism
F. Executive Order 13175: Consultation and
Coordination With Indian Tribal Governments
G. Executive Order 13045: Protection of Children
From Environmental Health
Risks and Safety Risks
H. Executive Order 13211: Actions
Concerning Regulations That
Significantly Affect Energy Supply,
Distribution or Use
I. National Technology Transfer and
Advancement Act (NTTAA)
J. Executive Order 12898: Federal Actions
To Address Environmental Justice in
Minority Populations and Low-Income
Populations
K. Determination Under Section 307(d)
VII. Statutory Provisions and Legal Authority
I. Executive Summary
Pursuant to section 23 l(a)(2)(A) of the
Clean Air Act (CAA or Act), the
Administrator proposes to find that emissions
of lead from covered aircraft engines cause or
contribute to lead air pollution that may
reasonably be anticipated to endanger public
health and welfare. Covered aircraft would,
for example, include smaller piston-engine
aircraft such as the Cessna 172 (single- engine
aircraft) and the Beechcraft Baron G58 (twin-
engine aircraft), as well as the largest piston-
engine aircraft-the Curtiss C-46 and the
Douglas DC-6. Other examples of covered
aircraft would include rotorcraft, such as the
Robinson R44 helicopter, light-sport aircraft,
and ultralight vehicles equipped with piston
engines.
For purposes of this action, the EPA is
proposing to define the "air pollution"
referred to in section 231 (a)(2)(A) of the CAA
as lead, which we also refer to as the lead air
pollution in this document /om21w+1
proposing to find that the lead air pollution
may reasonably be anticipated to endanger the
public health and welfare, the EPA relies on
the extensive scientific evidence critically
assessed in the 2013 Integrated Science
Assessment for Lead
(2013 Lead ISA) and the previous Air
Quality Criteria Documents (AQCDs) for
Lead, which the EPA prepared to serve as the
scientific foundation for periodic reviews of
EPA (1986) AQC for Lead, EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA- 600/8--83/028aF-dF, 1986.
EPA (1977) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA--600/8.-77-017 (NTIS PB28041), 1977.
I R e g i s t er /Vo l . 8 7, N o . 1 9 9 /M o n d a y , O c t o b e r 1 7 , 2 0 2 2 /P ro p o s e d Rules 62757
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards runways where covered aircraft operate. This to the air long ago.25 Over time, lead that was
(NAAQS) for lead.19202122 section ends with a description of a broad initially emitted to air can become less
Further, for purposes of this action, the EPA range of federal actions to reduce lead available for environmental circulation by
is proposing to define the "air pollutant" exposure from a variety of environmental sequestration in soil, sediment and other
referred to in CAA section 23 1(a)2)A) as media and a summary of citizen petitions for reservoirs.26
lead, which we also refer to as the lead air rulemaking regarding lead emissions from The multimedia distribution of lead emitted
pollutant in this document.' Accordingly, the covered aircraft and the EPA responses. into ambient ai r creates multiple air-related
Administrator is proposing to find that ,,, / pathways of human and ecosystem exposure. A. Background Information Helpful to emissions of the lead air pollutant from These pathways may involve media other than Understanding This Proposal .. ··ludi 'ad d td d ·il covered aircraft engines cause or contribute to air, including indoor an out toor lust, so1l,
the lead air pollution that may reasonably be This proposal draws extensively from the surface water and sediments, vegetation and
anticipated to endanger public health and EPA's scientific assessments for lead, which biota. The human exposure pathways for lead
welfare under CAA section 231(a)(2)(A). are developed as part of the EPA's periodic emitted into air include i nhalation of ambient
In addition to the proposed findings and the reviews of the air quality criteria"° for lead and air or ingestion of food, water or other
science on which they are based, this the lead NAAQS.17 These scientific materials, including dust and soil, that have
document includes an overview and assessments provide a comprehensive review, been contaminated through a pathway
background context helpful to understanding synthesis, and evaluation of the most policy- involving lead deposition from ambient air.27
the source sector in the context of this relevant science that builds upon the Ambient air inhalation pathways include both
proposal, a brief summary of some of the conclusions of previous assessments. In the inhalation of air outdoors and inhalation of
federal actions focused on reducing lead information that follows, we discuss and ambient air that has infiltrated into indoor
exposures, and the legal framework for this describe scientific evidence summarized in the environments.28 The air-related ingestion
action. most recent assessment, the 2013 Lead ISA"% pathways occur as a result of lead emissions
as well as information summarized in to air being distributed to other environmental
previous assessments, including the 1977, media, where humans can be exposed to it via
1986, and 2006 contact with and ingestion of indoor and
AQCDs 192021 outdoor dusts, outdoor soil, food and drinking
As described in the 2013 Lead ISA, lead water.
emitted to ambient air is transported through The scientific evidence documents exposure
the air and is distributed from air to other to many sources of lead emitted to the air that
environmental media through deposition.?? have resulted in higher blood lead levels,
Lead emitted in the past can remain available pmticularly for people living or working near
for environmental or human exposure for sources, including stationary sources, such as
extended time in some areas.23 Depending on mines and smelters, and mobile sources, such
the environment where it is deposited, it may as cars and trucks when lead was a gasoline
to various extents be resuspended into the additive,29 30 31 323334 Similarly, with regard to
ambient air, integrated into the media on emissions from engines used in covered
which it deposits, or transported in surface aircraft there have been studies reporting
water runoff to other areas or nearby positive associations of children's blood lead
waterbodics? Lead in the environment today levels with proximity to airports and activity by
may have been airborne yesterday or emitted covered aircraft,3 3 thus indicating potential
II. O verv iew and C ontext for This Proposal
We summarize here background
information that provides additional context
for this proposed action. This includes
information on the population of aircraft that
have piston engines, information on the use of
leaded aviation gasoline (avgas) in covered
aircraft, physical and chemical characteristics
of lead emissions from engines used in
covered aircraft, concentrations of lead in air
from these engine emissions, and the fate and
transport of lead emitted by engines used in
such aircraft. We also include here an analysis
of populations residing near and attending
school near airports and an analysis of
potential environmental justice implications
with regard to residential proximity to
• As noted in Section VA of this notice, the lead air
pollutant we arc considering in this proposed finding can
occur as elemental lead or in lead- containing compounds.
" Under section 108(a)(2) of the CAA, air quality criteria
are intended to "accurately reflect the latest scientific
knowledge useful in indicating the kind
and extent of all identifiable effects on public health or
welfare which may be expected from the presence of [a]
pollutant in the ambient air..." Section 109 of the CAA
directs the Administrator to propose and promulgate
"primary" and "secondary" NAAQS for pollutants for
which air quality criteria are issued. Under CAA section
109(d)(I), EPA must periodically complete a thorough
review of the air quality criteria and the NAAQS and make
such revisions as may be appropriate in accordance with
sections 108 and 109(b) of the CAA. A fuller description of
thesc legislative requirements can be found, for example,
in the ISA (see 2013 Lcad ISA, p. 1xix).
"" Section 109b)(1) defines a primary standard as one
"the attainment and maintenance of which in the judgment
of the Administrator, based on such criteria and allowing
an adequate margin of safety, are requisite to protect the
public health." A sccondary standard, as defined in section
109(b)2), must "specify a level of air quality the
attainment and maintenance of which, in the judgment of
the Administrator, based on such criteria, is requisite to
protect the public welfare from any known or anticipated
adverse effects associated with the presence of [the]
pollutant in the ambient air."
18 EPA(20l3) ISA for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/6OO/R-10/075F, 2013.
EP A (1977) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA-600/8-77-017 NTIS PB2804 l I), I 977.
1 EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA-600/8-83/028aF-dF (NTIS PB87142386), 1986.
a EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/6OO/R-5/144aF, 2006.
EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 3.11. "Pathways for
Pb Exposure." p. 3-1. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-
10/075F, 2013.
EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 3.7.1. "Exposure."
p. 3-144. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/ 600/R-10/075E,
2013.
EP A (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 6.2. "Fate and
'Transport of Pb in Ecosystems." p. 6-62. EPA, Washington,
DC, EPA/600/R-I0/075F, 2013.
8 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 2.3. "Fate and
Transport of Pb." p. 2--24. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/600/R-I0/075F, 2013.
16 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.2.1. "Sources,
Fate and Transport of Ambient Pb;" p. 1--6. Section 2.3.
"Fate and Transport of Pb." p. 2-24. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/600/R-I0/075F, 2013.
7 EPA (20I3) ISA for Lead. Section 3,1.1. "Pathways for
P Exposure." p. 3-1, EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OO/R-
10/075F, 2013.
% EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Sections 1.3. "Exposure to
Ambient Pb." p. I-II. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OO/R-
10/075F, 2013.
19 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Sections 3.4.1. "Pb in
Blood." p. 3-85; Section 5.4. "Summary." p. 5-40. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/075E, 2013.
EP A (2006) AQC for Lead. Chapter 3. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--5/144aF, 2006.
EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. Section 1.11.3. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA-600/8-83/028aF-dF (NTIS
PB87142386), 1986.
EPA (1977) AQC for Lead. Section 12.3.1.1.
"Air Exposures." p. 12--10. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA--
600/8-77-017 (NTIS PB280411), 1977.
» EPA (1977) AQC for Lead. Section 12.3.1.2. "Air
Exposures." p. 12-10. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA--600/8--
77-017 (NTIS PB28041), 1977.
EPA (1977) AQC for Lead. Section 12.3,1,1. "Air
Exposures." p. 12-10. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-600/8--
77-017 (NTIS PB280411), 1977.
' Miranda et al., 2011. A Geospatial Analysis of the
Effccls of Aviation Gasoline on Childhood Blood Lead
Levels. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119:1513-
1516.
Zahran et al., 2017. The Effect of Leaded Aviation
Gasoline on Blood Lead in Children. Journal of the
Association of Environmental and Resource Economists.
4(2):575-610.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62758
for children's exposure to lead from covered avgas.39 Tetraethyl lead was first used in majority of piston-engine aircraft activity that
aircraft engine emissions. A recent study piston-engine aircraft in 1927.4° Commercial occurs annually in the U.S.55 While less
evaluating cardiovascular mortality rates in and military aircraft in the U.S. operated on aircraft activity occurs at the remaining
adults 65 and older living within a few 100 Octane leaded avgas into the 1950s, but in 15,336 airports, that activity is conducted
kilometers and downwind of runways, while subsequent years, the commercial and military predominantly by piston-engine aircraft.
not evaluating blood lead levels, found higher aircraft fleet largely converted to turbine- Approximately 6,000 airports have been in
mortality rates in adults living near single- engine powered aircraft which do not use operation since the early 1970s when the
runway airports in years with more piston- leaded avgas."? The use of avgas containing leaded fuel being used contained up to 4.24
engine air traffic, but not in adults living near approximately 4 grams of lead per gallon grams of lead per gallon of avgas.56 The
multi-runway airports, suggesting the potential continued in piston- engine aircraft until the activity by piston-engine aircraft spans a range
for adverse adult health effects near some early 1970s when 100LL became the of purposes, as described further below. In
airports."7 dominant leaded fuel in use. Alaska this fleet of aircraft currently play a
..._. [he%j'% qr'€ [WO 81]f@egg f d9tq fr9m1 [he P1[1g9[ role, 1n [he [1qp18p)1[qt1pm
l. Piston-Engine Aircraft and the Use of federal government that provide annual infrastructure.
Leaded Aviation Gasoline estimates of the volume of leaded av gas As of 2019, there were 171,934 piston-
Aircraft operating in the U.S. are largely supplied and consumed in the U.S.: the engine aircraft in the U.S.57 This total includes
powered by either turbine engines or piston Department of Energy, Energy Information 128,926 single-engine aircraft, 12,470 twin-
engines, although other propulsion systems Administration (DOE EIA) provides engine aircraft, and 3,089 rotorcraf." The
are in use and in development. Turbine-engine information on the volume of leaded avgas average age of single- engine aircraft in 2018
powered aircraft and a small percentage of supplied in the U.S.," and the FAA provides was 46.8 years and the average age of twin-
piston-engine aircraft (i.e., those with diesel information on the volume of leaded avgas engine aircraft in 2018 was 44.7 years old." In
engines) operate on fuel that does not contain consumed in the 2019, 883 new piston-engine aircraft were
a lead additive. Covered aircraft, which are U.S.44 Over the ten-year period from 2011 manufactured in the U.S. some of which are
predominantly piston-engine powered aircraft, through 2020, DOE estimates of the annual exported."For the period
operate on leaded av gas. Examples of covered volume of leaded av gas supplied averaged 184
aircraft include smaller piston-powered million gallons, with year-on-year fluctuations
aircraft such as the Cessna 172 (single- engine in fuel supplied ranging from a 25 percent
aircraft) and the Beechcraft Baron G58 (twin- increase to a 29 percent decrease. Over the
engine aircraft), as well as the largest piston- same period, from 2011 through 2020, the
engine aircraft-the Curtiss C--46 and the FAA estimates of the annual volume of leaded
Douglas DC-6. Additionally, some rotorcraft, avgas consumed averaged 196 million
such as the Robinson R44 helicopter, light- gallons, with year- on-year fluctuations in fuel
sport aircraft, and ultralight vehicles can have consumed ranging from an eight percent htups://ww.faa.gov/airports/planning_
piston engines that operate using leaded increase to a I4 percent decrease, The FAA cap acity/pi as'current/m ed/N PIAS-2021-2025-
avgas. forecast for consumption of leaded av gas in Narrat ive.pdf. "fee FAA's NASR. Available at https://
Lead is added to avgas in the form of the U.S. ranges from 185 million gallons in ww.faa.gov/air _raffe'flight_infolae ronav/aero_
tetraethyl lead. Tetraethyl lead helps boost fuel 2026 to 179 million gallons in 2041, a daJaleNASR_Browserl.
octane, prevents engine knock, and prevents decrease of three percent in that period,181As S7FAA. General Aviation and Part 135 Activity
valve seat recession and subsequent loss of described later in this section, while the Surveys-CY 2019. Chapter I: Historical General
compression for engines without hardened consumption of leaded avgas is expected to Aviation and Air Taxi Measures. Table 1.1- General
valves. There are three main types of leaded decrease three percent from 2026 to 2041, Aviation and Pat 135 Number of Active
avgas: 100 Octane, which can contain up to FAA projects increased activity at some Aircraft By Aircraft Type 2008--2019. Retrieved on Dec.,
27, 2021 at hups://www.fa a. gov/data 4.24 grams of lead per gallon (1.12 grams of airports and decreased activity at other
lead per liter), 100 Octane Low Lead (JO0LL), airports out to 2045.
which can contain up to 2.12 grams of lead The FAA's National Airspace System
per gallon (0.56 grams of lead per liter), and Resource (NASR)54 provides a complete list
100 Octane Very Low Lead (100VLL), which of operational airport facilities in the U.S.
can contain up to 0.71 grams of lead per Among the approximately 19,600 airports
gallon (0.45 grams of lead per liter).38 listed in the NASR, approximately 3,300 are
Currently, JO0LL is the most commonly included in the National Plan oflntegrated
available and most commonly used type of Airport Systems (NPIAS) and support the
",See FAA. NASR. Available at https://
www.faa.gov/air_trafficiflight_info/aeronav/aero_
data/eNASR_Browser/.
9FA (2020) National Plan of Integrated Airport
Systems (NPIAS) 2021-2025 Published by the
Secretary of Transportation Pursuant to Title 49
U.S. Code, Section 47103. Retrieved on Nov. 3, 2021 from:
"7 Klemick et al., 2022. Cardiovascular Mortality and
Leaded Aviation Fuel: Evidence from Piston- Engine Air
Traffic in North Carolina. In ternat ional Journal of
En vironm e ntal Research and Public Health. 19(10):5941.
ASTM Interational (May 1, 2021) Standard
Specification for Leaded Aviation Gasolines D910.-21.
3 National Academies of Sciences, Engine er in g , and
Medicine (NAS). 2021. Options for Reducing Lead
Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft. Washington, DC:
The National Academies Press.
https://doi.o rg/1 0.17226/26050.
"0 Ogston 1981. A Short History of Aviation Gasoline
Development, 1903--1980.Society of Automotive Engineers.
p. 810848.
U.S. Department of Commerce Civil Aeronautics
Administration. Statistical Handbook of Aviation (Years
1930--1959). hups:// babel.hathitrust.orgtcgi/pt?id--mdp.
39015027813032&view-lup&seq=899.
42 U.S. Department of Commerce Civil Aeronautics
Administration. Statistical Handbook of Aviation (Years
1960-1971). htp s:// babel.hath itrust.org!cgil
pt?id-mdp.39015004520279&view·Iup&seq-==9&
skin- 2021.
pOE. EIA. Petroleum and Other Liquids;
Supply and Disposition. Aviation Gasoline in Annual
Thousand Barrels. Fuel production volume data obtained
from https ://ww w.eia.gov'd na v/p et/
pet_sum_snd_a_eppv_mbbl_a_cur-I.htm and
https://www.eia.gov/dav/pet/hist/
Lea[Handler.ash?n+PET&s=C400000001&f-A on Dec.,
30, 2021.
" Department of Transportation (DOT). FAA.
research/aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation/
CY2019/. Separately, FAA maintains a database of FAA-
registered aircraft and as of January 6, 2022 there were
222,592 piston-engine aircraft registered with FAA. See:
https://registry.faa.gov/ airerafinquiry/.
FAA. General Aviation and Part 135 Activity
Surveys---CY 2019. Chapter l: Historical General
Aviation and Air Taxi Measures. Table I.I-- General
Aviation and Part 135 Number of Active
Aviation Policy and Plans. FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal
Years 2009-2025. p. 81. Available at http://
www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation/aerospace_
forecast/2009-2025/m edia 2009%20Forecast%2 0Doc.pdf.
This document provides historical data for 2000-2008 as
well as forecast data.
"· DOT, FAA. Aviation Policy and Plans. Table
,p. I11. FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2021-
2041. Available at https://www.faa.gov/sites/
faa. gov/files/data_research/aviation/aerospace_
forecast/FY2021-41_FAA_Aerospace_Forecast.pdf.
627 59
6FA A. General Aviation and Part 135 Activity
Surveys CY 2019, Chapter 3: Primary and Actual
Use. Table 3.2General Aviation and Part 135
Total Hours Flow by Actual Use 2008--2019 (Hours in
Thousands). Retrieved on Mar., 22, 2022 at
"General Aviation Manufacturers Association www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_ https:/iwww.faa.gov'data_research/aviation_
(GAMA) (2019) General Aviation Statistical statistics/civil_airmen _statistics on May 20, 2022. data_statistics/gene ral_aviation/CY2019/
Databook and Industry Outlook, p.27. Retrieved on FAA General Aviation and Part 135 Activity 6p4A. General Aviation and Pant 135 Ac@it
October 7, 2021 from: https://gam a.aero/wp - Surveys- -CY 2019. Chapter 1: Historical General
Avl.at1·011-a11dA1'rTa.x1· Mcast1rc~. Table 1.4 General Surveys CY 2019. Chapter 3: Primary and Actual
content/uploads/G AMA_2019D atahook_Fin al-2020-0+ jiation and Part 135 Total Hours Flown By Actual Use Use. Table 1.3--General Aviation and Part 13 20
1:.,fAMA (2019) General Aviation Statistical 2008-2019 (Hours in Thousands). Retrieved on Dec., 27, Total Hours Flown by Aircraft Type 2008-2019 (Hours in
Databook and Industry Outlook, p.16. Retrieved on 2021 at htip s://w w w.faa.gov/ Thousands). Retrieved on Dec., 27, 2021 at
from 2019 through 2041, the fleet of fixed da ta_r esearch /aviat ion _dat a_statistics /gen eral_ hups://w wfa a.gov/dat a_research 'aviation_
61 , ·d aviation/C Y2019/ dat a_statistics/gene ral_aviation/CY2019/ YU" Pl"O""Hl" al""al'UP"OJ""" ii2on2, e FAA Aerospace Forecast projected a0.0
decrease at an annual average rate of0.9 percent increase in hours flown by the piston-engine aircraft
percent, and the hours flown by these aircraft fleet for the period 2012 through 2032. FAA Aerospace
is projected to decrease 0.9 percent per year Forecast Fiscal Years 2012-2032. p. 53. Available at
from 2019 to 2041.° An annual average htups://www.fa a.gov
h · h d · f. :. pesticide application and seeding cropland. In data_researchlal'iatio11/aem spaceJorecas/s/111 edial growtt rate in the production of piston-engine 2012%20F44%20Aerospace%2 0Forecast .pdf.
powered rotorcraft of 0.9 percent is forecast, 2019, aerial application in agriculture "See FAA's Air Trafie Activity Data. Available at
with a commensurate 19 percent increase in represented 883,600 hours flown by general nu s://aspm .faa.gov/op snet/sys/airp ort.asp.
hours flown in that period by piston- engine aviation aircraft, and approximately 17.5 general aviation activity is often used as a
powered rotorcraft.63 There were percent of these total hours were flown by surrogate measure for understanding piston-
approximately 664,565 pilots certified to fly piston-engine aircraft.67 engine activity.
general aviation aircraft in the U.S. in 2021.° Approximately 7 percent of the hours In order to understand the trend in airport-
This included 197,665 student pilots and flown that are categorized as general aviation specific piston-engine activity in the past ten
466,900 non-student pilots. In addition, there activity are conducted by piston-engine years, we evaluated the trend in general
were more than 301,000 FM Non-Pilot aircraft, and 17 percent of the hours flown that aviation activity. We calculated the average
Certificated mechanics,6 are categorized as air taxi are conducted by activity at each of the airports inATADS over
Piston-engine aircraft are used to conduct piston- engine aircraft." From the period 20I2 (rec-year periods for the years 2010 through
flights that are categorized as either general through 2019, the total hours flown by piston- 2012 and for the years 2017 through 2019. We
aviation or air taxi. General aviation flights engine aircraft increased nine percent from focused this trend analysis on the airports in
are defined as all aviation other than military 13.2 million hours in 2012 to 14.4 million ATADS because these data are collected daily
and those flights by scheduled commercial hours in 20196970 at an airport-specific control tower (in contrast
airlines. Air taxi flights are short duration As noted earlier, the U.S. has a dense with annual activity estimates provided at
flights made by small commercial aircraft on network of airports where piston-engine airports without control towers). There were
demand. The hours flown by aircraft in the aircraft operate, and a small subset of those 513 airports in ATADS for which data were
general aviation fleet are comprised of airports have air traffic control towers which available to determine annual average activity
personal and recreational transportation (67 collect daily counts of aircraft operations at for both the 2010-2012 period and the 2017-
percent), business (12 percent), instructional the facility ( one takeoff or landing event is 2019 time period. The annual average
flying (8 percent), medical transportation (less termed an "operation"). These daily operations by general aviation at each of these
than one percent), and the remainder includes operations are provided by the FM in the Air airports in the period 20 IO through 2012
hours spent in other applications such as aerial Traffic Activity System (ATADS).7 The ranged from 31 to 346,415, with a median of
observation and aerial application. Aerial ATADS reports three categories of airport 34,368; the annual average operations by
application for agricultural activity includes operations that can be conducted by piston- general aviation in the period from 2017
crop and timber production, which involve engine aircraft: Itinerant General Aviation, through 2019 ranged from 2,370 to 396,554,
fertilizer and Local Civil, and with a median of 34,365. Of the 513 airports,
Itinerant Air Taxi. The sum of Itinerant 211airports reported increased general
General Aviation and Local Civil at a facility aviation activity over the period evaluated.47
is referred to as general aviation operations. The increase in the average annual number of
Piston-engine aircraft operations in these operations by general aviation aircraft at these
categories are not reported separately from 211 facilities ranged from 151 to 136,872 (an
operations conducted by aircraft using other increase of two percent and 52 percent,
propulsion systems (e.g., turboprop). Because respectively).
piston-engine aircraft activity generally While national consumption of leaded
comprises the majority of general aviation av gas is forecast to decrease three percent
activity at an airport, from 2026 to 2045, this change in fuel
consumption is not expected to occur
uniformly across airports in the U.S. The FAA
produces the Terminal Area Forecast (TAF),
which is the official forecast of aviation
activity for the 3,300 U.S. airports that are in
the NPIAS.48 For the 3,306 airports in the
TAF, we compared the average activity by
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
Aircraft By Aircraft Type 2008-2019. Retrieved on Dec., ww wfaa.gov/dat a_research /aviation _dat a_
27, 2021 at hups://ww w.faa.gov/data_ statistics/civil_airmen_statistics on May 20, 2022.
research/aviation_data_statistics'general_aviation/ 6fFA. U.S. Civil inen Statistics. 2021 Active Civil
C Y2019/. Ainan Statistics. Retrieved from https://
October 7, 2021 from: https://gama.aero/wp -
content/uploads/G AM A _2019D atabook_Final-2020- 03-
20.p df.
'There are both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft; and
airplane is an engine-driven, fixed- wing aircraft and a
rotorcraft is an engine-driven rotary-wing aircraft.
fee FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2021--2041.
p. 28. Available at https://w w w.faa.gov
sites/faa. go/fi les/data_research /aviatio t
aerosp ace forecasts/F Y2021-41_FA A_Aerospace_
Forecast.pdf.
6FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2021-- 2041.
Table 28. p. 116., and Table 29. p. 17. Available at
https://ww w .faa.gov/s ites/faa.gov/fi les/
data_research/aviation/aerospace_forecasts/ F Y2021-
41_FA A _Aerospace_Forecast.pdf.
«pAA. U.S. Civil Ainen Statistics. 2021 Active Civil
Airman Statistics. Retrieved from htups://
7 Gcidosch. Memorandum to Docket EPA-HQ-
0AR-2022-0389. Past Trends and Future
67FAA. General Aviation and Part 135 Activity
Surveys CY 2019. Chapter 3: Primary and Actual
Use. Table 3.2--General Aviation and Pant 135
Total Hours Flown by Actual Use 2008-2019 (Hours in
Thousands). Retrieved on Mar., 22, 2022 al
http,s://w w w.faa.gov/dat a_research/aviation _
dat a_statistics/gen e ral_aviatioiC Y 2019/.
Projections in General Aviation Activity and Emissions.
June 1, 2022. Docket ID EPA--HQ-2022-- 0389.
FAA's TAF Fiscal Years 2020--2045 describes the
forecast method, data sources, and review process for the
TAF estimates. The documentation for the TAF is available
at https:/affaa. gov Downloads/TAFSm a ryFY2020-
2045.pdf.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
general aviation at each airport from 2017-- As with motor vehicle engines, when leaded
2019 with the FAA forecast for general av gas is combusted, the lead is oxidized to
aviation activity at those airports in 2045. The form lead oxide. In the absence of the
FAA forecasts that activity by general aviation ethylene dibromide lead scavenger in the fuel,
will decrease al 234 of the airports in the TAF, lead oxide can
remain the same at 1,960 airports, and
increase at I, I 12 of the airports. To evaluate
the magnitude of potential increases in activity
for the same 513 airports for which we
evaluated activity trends in the past ten years,
we compared the 2017-2019 average general
aviation activity at each of these airports with
} the forecasted activity for 2045 in the TAP"l
The annual operations estimated for the 513
airports in 2045 ranges from 2,914 to 427,821
with a median of 36,883. The TAF forecasts
an increase in activity at 442 of the 513
airports out to 2045, with the increase in
operations at those facilities ranging from 18
to 83,704 operations annually (an increase of
0.2 percent and 24 percent, respectively).
2. Emissions of Lead From Piston-
Engine Aircraft
This section describes the physical and
chemical characteristics of lead emitted by
covered aircraft, and the national, state,
county and airport- specific annual inventories
of these engine emissions of lead. Information
regarding lead emissions from motor vehicle
engines operating on leaded fuel is
summarized in prior AQCDs for Lead, and the
2013 Lead ISA also includes information on
lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft. 75 76
77 Lead is added to avgas in the form of
tetraethyl lead along with ethylene dibromide,
both of which were used in leaded gasoline for
motor vehicles in the past. Therefore, the
summary of the science regarding emissions
of lead from motor vehicles presented in the
1997 and 1986 AQCDs for Lead is relevant to
understanding some of the properties of lead
emitted from piston-engine aircraft and the
atmospheric chemistry these emissions are
expected to undergo. Recent studies relevant
to understanding lead emissions from piston-
engine aircraft have also been published and
are discussed here.
a. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of
Lead Emitted by Piston-Engine
Aircraft
" EPA (1986) AQC for L.cad. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA-600/8-83/028aF-dF (NTIS PB87142386), 1986.
0 Griffith 2020. Electron microscopic characterization of
exhaust particles containing lead dibromide beads expelled
from aircraft buming leaded gasoline. Atmospheric
Pollution Research 11:1481-1486.
" EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. Volume 2: Chapters 5 & 6.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-600/8-83/028aF-- dF (NTIS
PB87142386), 1986.
52 EPA (2013) 1SA for Lead. Table 2-1. "Pb
Compounds Observed in the Environment.," p. 2-8. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013.
" EPA (20I3) ISA for Lead. Section 2.2.2.1 "P
Emissions from Piston-engine Aircraft Operating on
Leaded-Aviation Gasoline and Other Non-road Sources." p.
2--I0. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/ R-10/075F, 2013.
might be in organic form may potentially be
20 percent (as an upper bound estimate)." In
addition, tetraethyl lead is a highly volatile
compound and therefore, a portion of
tetraethyl lead in fuel exposed to air will
partition into the vapor phase,"6$
Particles emitted by piston-engine aircraft
7The TAF is prepared to assist the FAA in meeting its are in the submicron size range (less than one
planning, budgeting, and staffing requirements. In addition,
state aviation authorities and other aviation planners use the micron in diameter). The
TAF as a basis for planning airport improvements. The TAF Swiss Federal Office of Civil Aviation
is available on the internet. The TAF database can be (FOCA) published a study of piston- engine
accessed at: https:/taffaa.gov. aircraft emissions including measurements of
"EPA (1977) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC, lead."° The Swiss POCA reported the mean
EPA--600/8-77-017 (NTIS PB280411), 1977... .
EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC, particle diameter of particulate matter emitted
EPA-600/8-83/028aF-dF (NTIS PB87142386), 1986. by one single-engine piston-powered aircraft
"7EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 2.2.2.1 "P ranged from 0.049 to 0.108 microns under
Emissions from Piston-engine Aircraft Operating on different power conditions (lead particles
Leaded Aviation Gasoline and Other Non-road Sources." p. would be expected to be present, but these
2-I0. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/ R-10/075F, 2013. so t tel id tified ' thi particles were not separately 1lentt!re mn I1s
study). The particle number concentration
ranged from 5.7x10°to 8.6x10° particles per
cm3• The authors noted that these particle
emission rates are comparable to those from a
typical diesel passenger car engine without a
particle filter."" Griffith (2020) collected
exhaust particles from a piston-engine aircraft
operating on leaded avgas and examined the
particles using electron microscopy. Griffith
reported that the mean diameter of particles
collected in exhaust was 13 nanometers (0.013
microns) consisting of a 4 nanometer (0.004
micron) lead dibromide particle surrounded by
hydrocarbons.
b. Inventory of Lead Emitted by Piston-
Engine Aircraft
collect on the valves and spark plugs, and if
the deposits become thick enough, the engine
can be damaged. Ethylene dibromide reacts
with the lead oxide, converting it to
brominated lead and lead oxybromides. These
brominated forms of lead remain volatile at
high combustion temperatures and are emitted
from the engine along with the other
combustion by-products." Upon cooling to
ambient temperatures these brominated lead
compounds are converted to particulate
matter. The presence of lead di bromide
particles in the exhaust from a piston- engine
aircraft has been confirmed by Griffith (2020)
and is the primary form of lead emitted by
engines operating on leaded fuel." In addition
to lead bromides, ammonium salts of other
lead halides were also emitted by motor
vehicles and would be expected in the exhaust
of piston-engine aircraft.°
Uncombusted alkyl lead was also measured
in the exhaust of motor vehicles operating on
leaded gasoline and is therefore likely to be
present in the exhaust from piston-engine
aircraft.52 Alkyl lead is the general tenn used
for organic lead compounds and includes the
lead additive tetraethyl lead. Summarizing the
available data regarding emissions of alkyl
lead from piston-engine aircraft, the 2013
Lead ISA notes that lead in the exhaust that
Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ-OAR-2022--
$6Potential Exposure to Non-exhaust Lead and Ethylene
Dibromide. June 15, 2022. Docket ID EPA-- HQ-2022--
0389.
56 Swiss FOCA (2007) Aircraft Piston Engine Emissions
Summary Report. 33-05--003 Piston Engine
Emissions_Swiss FOCA_Summary. Report_ 070612_rit.
Available at https://
www.bazl.admin.ch/bazl/en/home/specialists regulations-
and-guidelines/environment/pollutant- emissions/aircraft-
engine-emissions/report- appendices-database-and-data-
sheets.html.
67 Swiss FOCA (2007) Aircraft Piston Engine Emissions
Summary Report. 33--05-003 Piston Engine
Emissions_Swiss FOCA_Summary. Report_ 070612_rit.
Section 2.2.3.a . Available at https://
62760
Lead emissions from covered aircraft are
the largest single source of lead to air in the
U.S. in recent years, contributing over 50
percent of lead emissions to air starting in
2008 (Table 1).58 In 2017, approximately 470
tons of lead were emitted by engines in
piston- powered aircraft, which constituted 70
percent of the annual emissions of lead to air
in that year.59 Lead is emitted at and near
thousands of airports in the U.S. as described
in Section II.A. I of this document. The EPA's
method for developing airport-specific lead
estimates is described in the EPA's Advance
Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking on Lead Emissions from
Piston-Engine Aircraft Using Leaded Aviation
Gasoline"" and in the document titled
www.bazl.admin.ch/bazl/en/home/specialists/ regulations-
and-guidelines/environment/pollutant- emissions/aircraft-
engine-emissions/report- appendices-database-and-data-
sheets.html.
8 The lead inventories for 2008, 2011 and 2014 are
provided in the U.S. EPA (2018b) Report on the
Environment Exhibit 2. Anthropogenic lead emissions in
the U.S. Available at https://
cfpub.epa.gov/roe/indicator€fin?i=13112.
"9 EPA 2017 NEL. Available at https://www.epa.gov/air-
emissions-inventories/20I7- national-emissions-inventory-
nei-data.
0Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on
Lead Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft Using
1 Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
"Calculating Piston- Engine Aircraft Airport lead emissions as well as estimates of lead
62761
inventory data are briefly summarized here at
2008 2011 2014 2017
Piston-engine emissions of lead to air, tons ................................................... 560 490 460 470
Total U.S. lead emissions, tons ............................................................. ......... 950 810 720 670
Piston-engine emissions as a percent of the total U.S. lead inventory.......... 59% 60% 64% 70%
TABLE 1-PISTON-ENGINE EMISSION S OF LEAD TO AIR
Inventories for
Lead for the 2008 National Emissions
Inventory. "89 The EPA's National Emissions
Inventory (NED) reports airport estimates of
At the state level, the EPA estimates of lead
emissions from piston-engine aircraft range
from 0.3 tons (Rhode Island) to 50.5 tons
(California), 47 percent of which is emitted in
the landing and takeoff cycle and 53 percent
of which the EPA estimates is emitted in-
flight, outside the landing and takeoff cycle.?
Among the counties in the U.S. where the EPA
estimates engine emissions of lead from
covered aircraft, lead inventories range from
0.00005 tons per year to 4.1 tons per year and
constitute the only source of air-related lead in
I, 140 counties (the county estimates of lead
emissions include the lead emitted during the
landing and takeoff cycle and not lead emitted
in- flight)" In the counties where engine
emissions of lead from aircraft are the sole
source of lead to these estimates, annual lead
emissions from the landing and takeoff cycle
ranged from 0.00015 to 0.74 tons. Among the
1,872 counties in the U.S. with multiple
sources of lead, including engine emission
from covered aircraft, the contribution of
aircraft engine emissions ranges from 0.0006
to 0.26 tons, comprising 0.0065 to 99.98
percent of the county total, respectively. The
EPA estimates that among the approximately
20,000 airports in the
emitted in- flight, which are allocated to states
based on the fraction of piston-engine aircraft
activity estimated for each state. These
the state, county,
and airport level.9%
Leaded Aviation Gasoline. 75 FR 2440 (April 28, 2010).
%Airport lead annual emissions data used were reported
in the 2017 NEI. Available at https://www.epa.gov/air-
emissions-inventories/2017- national-emissions-inventory-
nei-data. The methods used to develop these inventories are
described in EPA (2010) Calculating Piston-Engine Aircraft
Airport Inventories for Lead for the 2008
NEI. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA--420-B--10-044, 2010.
(Also available in the docket for this action,
EPA-HQ-OAR-2022-0389).
9911e 20I7 NEI utilized 2014 aircraft activity data to
develop airport-specific lead inventories. Details can be
found on page 3--17 of the document located here:
https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/ fi les/2021-
02/doc en ts/ne i2017_1sd_full_
jan202 1.pd[i#page =70&zoom = 100,68,633.
Lead emitted in-fligh t is assigned to states based on
their overall fraction of total piston-engine aircraft
operations. The state-level estimates of engine emissions of
lead include both lead emitted in the landing and takeoff
cycle as well as lead emitted in-flight. The method used to
develop these estimates is described in EPA (2010)
Calculating Piston-Engine Aircraft Airport Inventories for
Lead
U.S., airport lead inventories range from
0.00005 tons per year to 0.9 tons per year.93 In
2017, the EPA's NEI includes 63 8 airports
where the EPA estimates engine emissions of
lead from covered aircraft were 0.1 ton or
more of lead annually. Using the FAA's
forecasted activity in 2045 for the
approximately 3,300 airports in the NPIAS (as
described in Section II.A. I of this document),
the EPA estimates airport- specific inventories
may range from 0.00003 tons to 1.28 tons of
lead
(median of0.03 tons), with 656 airports
for the 2008 NEI, available here: https://
nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDE.gi/P1009113.
PDF?DockeyP I009I3.PDF.
92 Airport lead annual emissions data used were reported
in the 2017 NEI. Available at https://www.epa.gov/air-
emissions-inventories/2017- national-emissions-inventory-
nei-data. In addition to the triennial NEJ, the EPA collects
from state, local, and Tribal air agencies point source data
for larger sources every year (see https://www.epa.gov/ air-
emissions-inventories/air-emissions-reporting-
requirements-aerr for specific emissions thresholds). While
these data are not typically published as a new NEI, they are
available publicly upon request and are also included in
https://w w w.ep a.g ov/air-emissions-modeling/emissions-
modeling-platforms that are created for years other than the
triennial NEI years. County estimates of lead emissions
from non-aircraft sources used in this action are from the
2019 inventory. There are 3,012 counties and statistical
equivalent areas where EPA estimates engine emissions of
lead occur.
99ee EPA lead inventory data available at
https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-modeling/ emissions-
modeling-platforms.
estimated to have inventories above 0.1 tons
in 2045.9
We estimate that piston-engine aircraft have
consumed approximately 38.6 billion gallons
of leaded avgas in the U.S. since 1930,
excluding military aircraft use of this fuel,
emitting approximately 113,000 tons of lead
to the air, 9°
3. Concentrations of Lead in Air
Attributable to Emissions From Piston-
Engine Aircraft
In this section, we describe the
concentrations of lead in air resulting from
emissions of lead from covered aircraft. Air
quality monitoring and modeling studies for
lead at and near airports have identified
elevated concentrations of lead in air from
piston-engine aircraft exhaust at, and
downwind of, airports where these aircraft are
active, 96 97 98 99 100 10! This section provides a
summary of the literature regarding the local-
scale impact of aircraft emissions of lead on
concentrations of lead at and near airports, with
specific focus on the results of air monitoring
for lead that the
%PA used the method describe in EPA (2010)
Calculating Piston-Engine Aircraft Airport Inventories for
Lead for the 2008 NEI lo estimate airport lead inventories
in 2045. This document is available here:
https://hepis.epa.gov/Exel
ZyPDF.cg/P 1009II3.PDF?Dockey=PI009II3.PDE
"Geidosch. Memorandum to Docket EPA-HQ- OAR-
2022-0389. Lead Emissions from the use of
Leaded Aviation Gasoline from 1930 through 2020. June I,
2022. Docket ID EPA--HQ-2022-0389.
%Carr et. al., 2011. Development and evaluation of an air
quality modeling approach to assess near- field impacts of
lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft operating on
leaded aviation gasoline.
Atmospheric Environment, 45 (32), 5795-5804.
DOI: https:/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv 2011.07.017.
7Feinberg et. al., 2016. Modeling of Lead
Concentrations and Hot Spols at General Aviation
Airports. Journal of the 'Transportation Research Board,
No. 2569, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,
pp. 80-87. DOI: 10.3141/2569-09.
%Municipality of Anchorage (2012). Merrill Field Lead
Monitoring Report. Municipality of Anchorage Department
of Health and Human Services. Anchorage, Alaska.
Available at https://
www.uni.org/Departments/health/Admi
environmen t/Air/Documents/Merrill%20Field
%20Lead%20Monitoring2 0sdy_2012/Merrill
%20Field%20Lead%20Study%20Report%20-%20
final. pdf.
%Environment Canada (2000) Airborne Particulate
Matter, Lead and Manganese at Buttonville Airport.
Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Conor Pacific Environmental
Technologies for Environmental Protection Service, Ontario
Region.
t0opine et. al., 2010. General Aviation Airport Air
Monitoring Study. South Coast Air Quality Management
District, Available at https://www.aqd.gov/docs/default-
source/air-quality/airquality-monitoring-studies/general-
aviation-study/ study-of-air-toxins-near-van-mys-and-
santamonica-airport.pdf.
0Lead emitted from piston-engine aircraft in the
particulate phase would also be measured in samples
collected to evaluate total ambient PM.s concentrations.
EPA required at a subset of airports and an
analysis conducted by the EPA to estimate
concentrations of lead at 13,000 airports in the
U.S., titled "Model-extrapolated Estimates of
Airborne Lead Concentrations at U.S.
Airports, " 102 103
Gradient studies evaluate how lead
concentrations change with distance from an
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
airport where piston-engine aircraft operate. consumption where the aircraft are stationary
These studies indicate that concentrations of and running.'I0 1 12 For piston-engine aircraft
lead in air are estimated to be one to two orders these areas are most commonly locations in
of magnitude higher at locations proximate to which pilots conduct engine tests during run-
aircraft emissions, compared to nearby up operations prior to take-off (e.g., magneto
locations not impacted by a source of lead air checks during the run-up operation mode).
emissions (concentrations for periods of Run-up operations are conducted while the
approximately 18 hours to three-month brakes are engaged so the aircraft is stationary
averages).104 105 106 107 1os 1oo The magnitude of and are often conducted adjacent to the
lead concentrations at and near airports is runway end from which the aircraft will take
highly influenced by the amount of aircraft off. Additional modes of operation by piston-
activity (ie., the number of take-off and engine aircraft, such as taxiing or idling near
landing operations, particularly if conccntrtcd the runway, may result in additional hot3pots
at one runway) and the time spent by aircratl in of elevated lead concentration (e.g., start-up
specific modes of operation. The most and idle, maintenance run-up ).113
significant emissions in terms of ground-based The lead NAAQS was revised in 2008.1/4
activity, and therefore The 2008 decision revised the level, averaging
time and form of the standards to establish the
current primary and secondary standards,
which are both 0.15 micrograms per cubic
meter of air, in terms of consecutive three-
month average of lead in total suspended
particles.'' In conjunction with strengthening
the lead NAAQS in 2008, the EPA enhanced
the existing lead monitoring network by
requiring monitors to be placed in areas with
sources such as industrial facilities and
airports with estimated lead emissions of 1.0
ton or more per year. Lead monitoring was
conducted at two airports following from
these requirements (Deer Valley Airport, AZ
and the Van Nuys Airport, CA). In 2010, the
EPA made further revisions to the monitoring
requirements such that state and local air
quality agencies are now required to monitor
near industrial facilities with estimated lead
emissions of0.50 tons or more per year and at
airports with estimated emissions of 1.0
0ppA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420--R-20-003, 2020.
Available at https://epis.epa.go/Exe/ZyPDE.cg?
DockeyP100YG52.pdf. EPA responses to peer review
comments on the report are available at
https://epis.epa.go»Exe/ZyPDE.cgi?Dockeye
PIO0YID.pdf. These documents are also available in the
docket for this action (Docket EPA-HQ- OAR--2022--
0389).
%"EPA (2022) Technical Support Document
(TSD) for the EPA's Proposed Finding that Lead
Emissions from Aircraft Engines that Operate on Leaded
Fuel Cause or Contribute to Air Pollution that May
Reasonably Be Anticipated to Endanger Public Health and
Welfare. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420-R-22-025,
2022. Available in the docket for this action.
0These studies report monitored or modeled data for
averaging times ranging from approximately 18 hours to
three-month averages.
0Carr et. al., 2011. Development and evaluation of an air
quality modeling approach to assess near- field impacts of
lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft operating on
leaded aviation gasoline.
Atmospheric Environment, 45 (32), 5795--5804.
DOI: hups:/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atnosen. 2011.07.017.
0Heiken et. al., 2014. Quantifying Aircraft Lead
Emissions at Airports, ACRP Report 133. Available at
https://www.nap.edu/catalog/2 2 142/quantifyingaircraft-
lead-emissions-at-airports.
Hdda et. al., 2022. Substantial Near-Field Air
Quality Improvements at a General Aviation Airport
Following a Runway Shortening. Environmental Science &
Technology DOI: 10.1021/ acs.est. 1c06765.
top;e et. al., 2010. General Aviation Airport Air
Monitoring Study. South Coast Air Quality Management
District. Available at http.s:// www.aqmd. gov/docs/default-
source/air-quality/airquality-monitoring-studies/general-
aviation-study/ study-of-air-toxins-near-van-muys-and-
santamonica-airport.pdf.
0EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420-R-20-003, 2020.
ground-level concentrations of lead in air,
occur near the areas with greatest fuel
EPA (2015) Program Overview: Airport Lead
Monitoring. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420--F--15-- 003,
2015. Available at: https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe!
ZyPDF.cg/PIO0LID.PDF?Dockey PIO0LJDW.PDF
EPA (2022) Technical Support Document
(TSD ) for the EPA's Proposed Finding that Lead
10EPA (2010) Development and Evaluation of an Air
Quality Modeling Approach for Lead Emissions from
Piston-Engine Aircraft Operating on Leaded Aviation
Gasoline. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-- 420--R-10-007,
2010. htups://epis.epa. gov/Exel
ZyPDF.cg/PI007H 4Q.PDF?Dockey+PIO07 HA.PDE
HEPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420--R-20-003, 2020. EPA
responses to peer review comments on the report arc
available at https://nepis.epa. gov/Exel
ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey-PIO0YID. pdf.
Feinberg et. al., 2016. Modeling of Lead
Concentrations and Hot Spots at General Aviation
Airports. Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 2569, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,
pp. 80-87. DOI: 10.3141/2569-09.
Feinberg et. al., 2016. Modeling of Lead
Concentrations and Hot Spots al General Aviation
Airports. Journal of the Transportation Research
Board, No. 2569, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC, pp, 80-87. DOI: 10.3141/2569-09.
173 FR 66965 (Nov. 12, 2008).
'40 CFR 50.16 (Nov. 12, 2008).
Emissions from Aircraft Engines that Operate on Leaded
Fuel Cause or Contribute to Air Pollution that May
Reasonably Be Anticipated to Endanger Public Health and
Welfare. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420--R-22-025,
2022. Available in the docket for this action.
6 A design value is a statistic that summarizes the air
quality data for a given area in terms of the indicator,
62762
ton or more per year.l As part of this 2010
requirement to expand lead monitoring, the
EPA also required a one-year monitoring study
of 15 additional airports with estimated lead
emissions between 0.50 and 1.0 ton per year
in an effort to better understand how these
emissions affect concentrations of lead in the
air at and near airports. Further, to help
evaluate airport characteristics that could lead
to ambient lead concentrations that approach
or exceed the lead NAAQS, airports for this
one-year monitoring study were selected
bascd on factors such as thc lcvcl of piston-
engine aircraft activity and the predominant
use of one runway due to wind patterns. As a
result of these requirements, state and local air
authorities collected and certified lead
concentration data for at least one year at 17
airports with most monitors starting in 2012
and generally continuing through 2013. The
data presented in Table 2 are based on the
certified data for these sites and represent the
maximum concentration monitored in a
rolling three-month average for each location.
61 6263
TABLE 2-LEAD CONCENTRATIONS
MONITORED AT 17 AIRPORTS IN THE
U.S.
Airport, State "
Lead
design
value, ""
g/m?
Auburn Municipal Airport, WA ..
Brookhaven Airport, NY .
Centennial Airport, CO .
Deer Valley Airport, AZ .
Gillespie Field, CA .
Harvey Field, WA .
McClellan-Palomar Airport, CA
Merrill Field, AK .
Nantucket Memorial Airport,
MA .
Oakland County International
Airport, Ml .
Palo Alto Airport, CA .
Pryor Field Regional Airport, AL
Reid-Hillview Airport, CA .
Republic Airport, NY .
San Carlos Airport, CA .
Stinson Municipal, TX .
Van Nuys Airport, CA .
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.17
0.07
0.01
0.02
0.12
0.01
0.10
0.01
0.33
0.03
0.06
Monitored lead concentrations violated the
lead NAAQS at two airports in 2012: the
McClellan-Palomar Airport and the San
Carlos Airport. At both of these airports,
averaging time, and form of the standard. Design values
can be compared to the level of the standard and are
typically used to designate areas as meeting or not meeting
the standard and assess progress towards meeting the
NAAQS.
FR 81226 (Dec. 27, 2010)
I R e g i s t e r /V o l. 8 7 , N o . 1 9 9 /M o n d a y, O c t o b e r 1 7 , 2 0 2 2 /P ro p o s e d R u l e s
m o n ito r s w e re lo c a te d in c lo s e p ro x im ity to e x tra p o la te d m o d e lin g re s u lts fr o m o n e a irp o r t
th e a re a a t th e e n d o f th e ru n w a y m o s t to e s tim a te a ir le a d c o n c e n tra tio n s a t th e
fr e q u e n tly u s e d fo r p re -fli g h t sa fe ty c h e c k s m a x im u m im p a c t a re a n e a r th e ru n -u p
(i.e., run-up). Alkyl lead emitted by piston- location for over 13,000 U.S. airports. The
engine aircraft would be expected to partition model- extrapolated lead estimates in this
into the vapor phase and would not be study indicate that some additional U.S.
collected by the monitoring conducted in this airports may have air lead concentrations
study, which is designed to quantitatively above the NAAQS at this area of maximum
collect particulate forms of lead.6 5 impact. The report also indicates that, at the
Airport lead monitoring and modeling levels of activity analyzed at the 13,000
studies have identified the sharp decrease in airports, estimated lead concentrations
lead concentrations with distance from the decrease to below the standard within 50
run-up area and therefore the Importance of meters from the location of highest
considering monitor placement relative to the concentration.
nm- up area when evaluating the maximum To estimate the potential ranges of lead
impact location attributable to lead emissions concentrations at and downwind of the
from piston-engine aircraft. The monitoring anticipated area of highest concentration at
data in Table 2 reflect differences in monitor airports in the U.S., the relationship between
placement relative to the run-up area as well piston-engine aircraft activity and lead
as other factors; this study also provided concentration at and downwind of the
evidence that air lead concentrations at and maximum impact site at one airport was
downwind from airports could be influenced applied to piston-engine aircraft activity
by factors such as the use of more than one estimates for each U.S. airport.7 This
run-up area, wind speed, and the number of approach for conducting a nationwide analysis
operations conducted by single- versus twin- of airports was selected due to the impact of
engine aircraft.6 piston-engine aircraft run-up operations on
The EPA recognized that the airport lead ground-level lead concentrations, which
monitoring study provided a small sample of creates a maximum impact area that is
the potential locations where emissions of lead expected to be generally consistent across
from piston-engine aircraft could potentially airports. Specifically, these aircraft
cause concentrations of lead in ambient air to consistently take off into the wind and
exceed the lead NAAQS. Because we typically conduct run-up operations
anticipated that additional airports and immediately adjacent to the take-off runway
conditions could lead to exceedances of the end, and thus, modeling lead concentrations
lead NAAQS at and near airports where from this source is constrained by variation in
piston-engine aircraft operate, and in order to a few key parameters. These parameters
understand the range of lead concentrations at include: (I) Total amount of piston-engine
airports nationwide, we developed an analysis aircraft activity, (2) the proportion of activity
of 13,000 airports in the peer-reviewed report conducted at one runway end, (3) the
titled, "Model-extrapolated Estimates of proportion of activity conducted by multi-
Airborne Lead piston-engine aircraft, ( 4) the duration of nm-
Concentrations at U.S. Airports, "6768 This up operations, (5) the concentration of lead in
report provides estimated ranges oflead avgas, (6) wind speed at the model airport
concentrations that may occur at and near relative to the extrapolated airport, and (7)
airports where leaded avgas is used. The study additional meteorological, dispersion model,
6° As noted earlier, when summarizing the available data
regarding emissions of alkyl lead from piston-engine
aircraft, the 2013 Lead ISA notes that an upper bound
estimate of lead in the exhaust that might be in organic
form may potentially be 20 percent (2013 Lead ISA, p. 2-
10), Organic lead in engine exhaust would be expected to
influence receptors within short distances of the point of
emission from piston-engine aircraft. Airports with large
flight schools and/or facilities with substantial delays for
aircraft queued for takcoff could experience higher
concentrations of alkyl lead in the vicinity of the aircraft
exhaust.
6The data in Table 2 represent concentrations measured
at one location at each airport and mon it o rs were not
consistently placed in close proximity to the run-up areas.
As described in Section II.A.3, monitored concentrations of
lead in air near airports are highly influenced by proximity
of the monitor to the nu-up area. I addition to monitor
placement, there are individual airport factors that can
influence lead concentrations (e.g, the use of multiple run-
up areas at an airport, fleet composition, and wind speed).
The monitoring data reported in Table 2 reflect a range of
lead concentrations indicative of the location al which
measurements were made and the specific operations at an
airport.
7 EPA (2020) Model-Extrapolated Estimates of Ai rb or e
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420-R-20-003, 2020.
8 EPA (2022) Technical Support Document
(TSD) for the EPA's Proposcd Finding that Lead
Emissions fr om Aircraft Engines that Operate o Leaded
Fuel Cause or Contribute to Air Pollution that May
Reasonably Be Anticipated to Endanger Public Health and
Welfare. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420--R-22-025,
2022. Available in the docket for this action.
61 this study, the EPA defined the maximum impact site
as 15 meters downwind of the tailpipe of an aircraft
conducting nun-up operations in the area designated for
these operations at a nunway end. The maximum impact
area was defined as approximately 50 meters surrounding
the ma xi m um impact site.
7 prior to this model extrapolation study, the EPA
developed and evaluated an air quality modeling approach
(this study is available here:
https://nepis.pa.gov/Exe!ZyPDE.cgit
62763
or operational parameters. These parameters
were evaluated through sensitivity analyses as
well as quantitative or qualitative uncertainty
analyses. To generate robust concentration
estimates, the EPA evaluated these parameters,
conducted wind-speed correction of
extrapolated estimates, and used airport-
specific information regarding airport layout
and prevailing wind directions for the
13,000 airports."
Results of this national analysis show that
model-extrapolated three-month average lead
concentrations in the maximum impact area
may potentially exceed the lead NAAQS at
airports with activity ranging from 3,616
26,816 Landing and Take-Off events (LTOs)
in a three-month period."? The lead
concentration estimates from this model-
extrapolation approach account for lead
engine emissions from aircraft only, and do
not include other sources of air-related lead.
The broad range in LTOs that may lead to
concentrations of lead exceeding the lead
NAAQS is due to the piston-engine aircraft
fleet mix at individual airports such that
airports where the fleet is dominated by twin-
engine aircraft would potentially reach
concentrations of lead exceeding the lead
NAAQS with fewer LTOs compared with
airports where single- engine aircraft dominate
the piston- engine fleet." Model-extrapolated
three-month average lead concentrations from
aircraft engine emissions were estimated to
extend to a distance of at least 500 meters
from the maximum impact area at airports
with activity ranging from 1,275-4,302 LTOs
in that three-month period.74 In a separate
modeling analysis at an airport at which
hundreds of take-off and landing events by
piston-engine aircraft occur per day, the EPA
found that modeled 24-hour concentrations of
lead were estimated above background
extending almost 1,000 meters downwind
from the runway.75
PIO07HAQ.PDF?Dockey-PIO07HAQ.PDF), and
subsequently applied the approach to a second airport and
again performed an evaluation of the model output using air
monitoring data (this second study is available here:
http.s://epis.epa.gow/Exel
ZyPDF.cg@?Dockey +PI00YG52.pd~).
7 EPA (2022) Technical Support Document
(TSD) for the EPA's Proposed Finding that Lead
Emissions from Aircraft Engines that Operate on Leaded
Fuel Cause or Contribute to Air Pollution that May
Reasonably Be Anticipated to Endang er Public Health and
Welfare. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420-R-22-025,
2022. Available in the docket for this action.
7 EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports. Table 6. p. 53. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA- 420-R-- 20-003, 2020.
7 See methods used in EPA (2020) Model- extrapolated
Estimates of Airborne Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
Table 2. p.23. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA--420-R-20-003,
2020.
7 EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of
Airborne Lead Concentrations al U.S. Airports, Table 6.
p.53. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420-R-- 20-003, 2020.
7 Carr et. al., 2011. Development and evaluation of an air
quality modeling approach to asscss near- field impacts of
lead emissions from pist on-en gi ne aircraft operating on
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62764
Model-extrapolated estimates of lead decreases in piston-engine aircrall: activity out particles emitted by piston engines may
concentrations in the EPA report "Model- to 2041, however these decreases are not disperse widely in the environment. However,
extrapolated Estimates of Airborne Lead projected to occur uniformly across airports. lead emitted during the landing and takeoff
Concentrations at U.S. Airports" were Among the more than 3,300 airports in the cycle, particularly during ground-based
compared with monitored values and show FAA TAF, the FAA forecasts both decreases operations such as start- up, idle, preflight
general agreement, suggesting that the and increases in general aviation, which is run-up checks, taxi and the take-off roll on the
extrapolation method presented in this report largely comprised of piston-engine aircraft. If runway, may deposit to the local environment
provides reasonable estimates of the range in the current conditions on which the forecast is and/or infiltrate into buildings.82 Depending
concentrations of lead in air attributable lo based persist, then lead concentrations in the on ambient conditions (e.g., ozone and
three-month activity periods of piston-engine air may increase at the airports where general hydroxyl concentrations in the atmosphere),
aircraft at airports. The assessment included aviation activity is forecast to increase. alkyl lead may exist in the atmosphere for
detailed evaluation of the potential impact of In addition to airport-specific modeled hours to days and may therefore be
l run-up duration, the concentration of lead in estimates of lead concentrations. the EPA a[g transported off airport property into nearby
avgas, and the impact of meteorological provides annual estimates of lead communities.
parameters on model-extrapolated estimates of concentrations for each census tract in the Lead halides emitted by motor vehicles
lead concentrations attributable to engine U.S. as part of the Air Toxics Screening operating on leaded fuel were reported to
emissions of lead from piston-powered Assessment (AirToxScreen)." The census undergo compositional changes upon cooling
aircraft. Additionally, this study included a tract concentrations are averages of the area- and mixing with the ambient air as well as
range of sensitivity analyses as well as weighted census block concentrations within during transport, and we would anticipate lead
quantitative and qualitative uncertainty the tract. Lead concentrations reported in the bromides emitted by piston-engine aircraft to
analyses. The EPA invites comment on the AirToxScreen are based on emissions behave similarly in the atmosphere. The
approach used in this model-extrapolation estimates from anthropogenic and natural water-solubility of these lead-bearing particles
analysis. sources, including aircraft engine emissions.7 was reported to be higher for the smaller lead-
The EPA's model-extrapolation analysis of The 2017 AirToxScreen provides lead bearing particles.: 'Lead halides emitted in
lead concentrations from engine emissions concentration estimates in air for 73 449 motor vehicle exhaust were reported to break
resulting from covered aircraft found that the census tracts in the U.S."?Lead emissions down rapidly in the atmosphere via redox
lowest annual airport emissions of lead from piston-engine aircraft comprised more reactions in the presence of atmospheric
estimated to result in air lead concentrations than 50 percent of these census block area- acids. Tetraethyl lead has an atmospheric
approaching or potentially exceeding the weighted lead concentrations in over half of residence time ranging from a few hours to a
NAAQS was 0.1 tons per year. 'There are key the census tracts. which included tracts in all few days. Tetraethyl lead reacts with the
pieces of airport-specific data that are needed 50 states. as well as Puerto Rico and the hydroxyl radical in the gas phase to form a
to fully evaluate the potential for piston- Virgin Islands. variety of products that include ionic trialkyl
engine aircraft operating at an airport to cause lead, dialkyl lead and metallic lead. Trialkyl
concentrations of lead in the air to exceed the 4. Fate and Transport of Emissions of Lead lead is slow to react with the hydroxyl radical
lead NAAQS, and the EPA's report "Model- From Piston-Engine Aircraft and is quite persistent in the atmosphere.86 b.
extrapolated Estimates of Airborne Lead This section summarizes the chemical Deposition of Lead Emissions From Piston-
Concentrations at U.S. Airports" provides transformation that piston-engine aircraft lead Engine Aircraft and Soil Lead
quantitative and qualitative analyses of these emissions are anticipated to undergo in the Concentrations to Which Piston-Engine
factors.76 The EPA's estimate of airports that atmosphere and describes what is known Aircraft May Contribute
have annual lead inventories of0.1 ton or about the deposition of piston-engine aircraft
more are illustrative of, and provide one lead, and potential impacts on soil, food, and
approach for an initial screening evaluation of aquatic environments.
locations where engine emissions of lead from
aircraft increase localized lead concentrations
in air. Airport-specific assessments would be
needed to determine the magnitude of the
potential range in lead concentrations at and
downwind of each facility.
As described in Section II.A.I of this
document, the FAA forecasts 0.9 percent
leaded aviation gasoline. Atmospheric Environment 45:
5795-5804.
76 EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
Table 6. p.53. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-420--R-- 20-003,
2020. EPA responses to peer review comments on the report
are available here: https://
nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDE.cgi?Dockey- PIO0YIWD.pdf.
77 See EPA's 2017 AirToxScreen. Available at
https://www.epa.gov/Air'foxScreen.
78These concentration estimates are not used for
comparison to the level of the Lead NAAQS due to
different temporal averaging times and underlying
assumptions in modeling. The AirToxScreen estimates are
provided to help state, local and Tribal air agencies and the
public identify which pollutants, emission sources and
a. Atmospheric Chemistry and Transport of
Emissions of Lead From Piston-Engine
Aircraft
Lead emitted by piston-engine aircraft can
have impacts in the local environment and,
due to their small size (i.e., typically less than
one micron in diameter) %0%l lead-bearing
places they may wish to study further to better understand
potential risks to public health from air toxics. There are
uncertainties inherent in these estimates described by the
EPA, some of which are relevant to these estimates of lead
concentrations; however, these estimates provide
perspective on the potential influence of piston-engine
emissions of lead on air quality. See
http.s://www.epa.gov/Air[ox8Screen/ airtoxscreen-limitations.
7 As airports are generally in larger census blocks within
a census tract, concentrations for airport blocks dominate
the area-weighted average in cases where an airport is the
predominant lead emissions source in a census tract.
8 Swiss FOCA (2007) Aircraft Piston Engine
Emissions Summary Report. 33-05-003 Piston Engine
Emissions_Swiss FOCA_Summary. Report_070612_rit.
Available at https://
www.bazl.adin.ch/bazl/en/home/specialists/ regulations-
and-guidelines/environment/pollutant- emissions/aircraft-
engine-emissions/report- appendices-database-and-data-
sheets.html.
Lead is removed from the atmosphere and
deposited on soil, into aquatic systems and on
other surfaces via wet or dry deposition.87
Meteorological factors (e.g., wind speed,
convection, rain, humidity) influence local
deposition rates. With regard to deposition of
lead from aircraft engine emissions, the EPA
modeled the deposition rate for aircraft lead
emissions at one airport in a temperate climate
in California with dry summer months. In this
8 Giffith 2020. Electron microscopic characterization of
exhaust particles containing lead dibromide beads expelled
from aircraft buming leaded gasoline. Atmospheric
Pollution Research 11:1481-1486.
" EPA (2013) ISA for Lead, Section 1.3. "Exposure to
Ambient Pb." p. I--11. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/60O/R--
10/075F, 2013.
" EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. Section E.6. p. 2-5. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/144aF, 2006.
M EPA (1977) AQC for Lead. Section 6.2.2.1.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-600/8--77-017, 1977.
8' EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. Section E.6. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--5/I44aF, 2006.
" EPA (2006) A\QC for Lead. Section 2. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/144aF, 2006.
7 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.2.1. "Sources,
Fate and Transport of Ambient Pb;" p. I- 6; and Section
2.3. "Fate and Transport of Pb." p. 2-24 through 2-25.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/ 600/R-10/075F, 2013.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
location, the average lead deposition rate from percent of the lead found in TSP. The authors
aircraft emissions of lead was 0.057 noted that based on analysis of lead isotopes
milligrams per square meter per ycar.88 present in the air samples collected at these
Studies summarized in the 2013 Lead ISA airports, the original source of the lead found
suggest that soil is a reservoir for in the coarse particle range appeared to be
contemporary and historical emissions of lea4 from aircraft exhaust emissions of lead that
to air. Once deposited to soil, lead can be previously deposited to soil and were
absorbed onto organic material, can undergo resuspended by wind or aircraft- induced
chemical and physical transformation turbulence. Results from lead isotope analysis
depending on a number of factors (e.g., pH of in soil samples collected at the same three
the soil and the soil organic content), and can airports led the authors to conclude that lead
participate in further cycling through air or emitted from piston-engine aircraft was not
other media." The extent of atmospheric the dominant source of lead in soil in the
deposition of lead from aircraft engine samples measured at the airports they studied.
emissions would be expected to depend on a The authors note the complex history of
number of factors including the size of the topsoil can create challenges in understanding
particles emitted (smaller particles, such as the extent to which aircraft lead emissions
those in aircraft emissions, have lower settling Impact soil lead concentrations at and near
velocity and may travel farther distances airports (e.g., the source of topsoil can change
before being deposited compared with larger as a result of site renovation, construction,
particles), the temperature of the exhaust (the landscaping, natural events such as wildfire
high temperature of the exhaust creates plume and hurricanes, and other activities).
buoyancy), as well as meteorological factors Concentrations of lead in soil at and near
(e.g., wind speed, precipitation rates). As a airports servicing piston-engine aircraft hav%
result of the size of the lead particulate matter been measured using a range of approaches.
emitted from piston-engine aircraft and as a 9596979899 Kavouras et al. (2013) collected soil
result of these emissions occurring at various samples at three airports and reported that
altitudes, lead emitted from these aircraft may construction at an airport involving removal
distribute widely through the environment?' and replacement of topsoil complicated
Murphy et al. (2008) reported weekend interpretation of the findings at that airport
incrcascs in ambicnt lead monitored at remote and that the number of runways at an airport
locations in the U.S. that the authors attributed may influence resulting lead concentrations in
to weekend increases in piston-engine soil (ie., multiple runways may provide for
powered general aviation activity"? more wide-spread dispersal of the lead over a
Heiken et al. (2014) assessed air lead larger area than that potentially affected at a
concentrations potentially attributable to single-runway airport).
resuspended lead that previously deposited c. Potential for Lead Emissions From
onto soil relative to air lead concentrations Piston-Engine Aircraft To Impact Agricultural
resulting directly from aircraft engine Products
emissions.93 Based on comparisons of lead
concentrations in total suspended particulate
(TSP) and fine particulate matter (PMas)
measured at the three airports, coarse particle
lead was observed to account for about 20- 30
Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ-OAR- 2022-0389.
Deposition of Lead Emitted by Piston- engine Aircraft. June
15, 2022. Docket 1D EPA-HQ- 2022-0389,
"9 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 2.6.1. "Soils." p. 2-
118. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/ R-10/075F, 2013.
EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Chapter 6. "Ecological
Effects of P." p. 6-57. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-I0/075F, 2013.
91 Murphy et al., 2008. Weekly patterns of aerosol in the
United States. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 8:2729-
2739.
P Lead concentrations collected as part of the
Intcragency Monitoring of Protected Visual
Environments (IMPROVE) network and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
monitoring sites.
9 Heiken et al., 2014, ACRP Web-Only Document 21:
Quantifying Aircraft Lead Emissions at Airports.
Contractor's Final Repot for ACRP02-- 34. Available at
https://www.trb.org/Publications/ Blurbs/172599.aspx.
% Mccumber and Strevett 2017. A Ge0spatial
Studies conducted near stationary sources
of lead emissions (e.g., smelters) have shown
that atmospheric lead sources can lead to
contamination of agricultural products, such
as vegetables 100 0 In this way, air lead
Analysis of Soil Lead Concentrations Around Regional
Oklahoma Airports. Chemosphere 167:62 70.
9% Kavouras et al., 2013. Bioavailable Lead in Topsoil
Collected from General Aviation Airports.
The Collegiate Aviation Review International 31(1):57--68.
Available at https://doi.org/10.22488/ okstate.18.100438.
Heiken et al., 2014. ACRP Web-Only
Document 2l: Quantifying Aircraft Lead Emissions at
Airports. Contractor's Final Report for ACRP 02--34.
Available at https://ww .trb.org/Publications/
Blurbs/172599.aspx.
97 EPA (2010) Development and Evaluation of an Air
Quality Modeling Approach for Lead Emissions from
Piston-Engine Aircraft Operating on Leaded Aviation
Gasoline, EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-- 420--R-10-007,
2010. https://epis.epa.gov/Exel
ZyPDFcg/PI0O7HAO.PDF?Dockey PIO07HAO.PDE
% Environment Canada (2000) Airborne Particulate
Matter, Lead and Manganese at Buttonville Airport.
Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Conor Pacific Environmental
Technologies for Environmental Protection Service, Ontario
Region.
%% Lejano and Ericson 2005. 'Tragedy of the
Temporal Commons: Soil-Bound Lead and the
Anachronicity of Risk. Journal of Environmental Planing
and Management., 48(2):301-320.
62765
sources may contribute to dietary exposure
pathways." As described in Section II.A.I of
this document, piston- engine aircraft are used
in the application of pesticides, fertilizers and
seeding crops for human and animal
consumption and as such, provide a potential
route of exposure for lead in food. To
minimize drift of pesticides and other
applications from the intended target, pilots
are advised to maintain a height between eight
and 12 feet above the target crop during
application."%> The low flying height is needed
to minimize the drift of the fertilizer and
pesticide particles away from their intended
target. An unintended consequence of this
practice is that exhaust emissions of lead have
a substantially increased potential for directly
depositing on vegetation and surrounding soil.
Lead halides, the primary form of lead emitted
by engines operating on leaded fuel, " are
slightly water soluble and, therefore, may be
more readily absorbed by plants than other
forms of inorganic lead,
The 2006 AQCD indicated that surface
deposition of lead onto plants may be
significant."· Atmospheric deposition of lead
provides a pathway for lead in vegetation as a
result of contact with above-ground portions
of the plant, 106 107 108 Livestock may
subsequently be exposed to lead in vegetation
(e.g., grasses and silage) and in surface soils
via incidental ingestion of soil while
grazing.164
d. Potential for Lead Emissions From
Piston-Engine Aircraft To Impact Aquatic
Ecosystems
As discussed in Section 6.4 of the 2013
Lead ISA, lead bioaccumulates in the tissues
of aquatic organisms through ingestion of
food and water or direct uptake from the
environment (e.g., across membranes such as
gills or skin).165 Alkyl lead, in particular, has
been identified by the EPA as a Persistent,
'0 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 3.1,3.3. "Dietary
Pb Exposure." p. 3-20 through 3-24. EPA, Washington,
DC, EPA600/R--10/075F, 2013.
0 EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. Section 8.2.2. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/I44aF, 2006.
EP A (2006) AQC for Lead. Section 8.2.2. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/144aF, 2006.
10» 9'Connor-Marer. Aerial Applicator's Manual:
A National Pesticide Applicator Certification Study Guide.
p. 40. National Association of State Departments of
Agriculture Research Foundation. Available at
https://www.agaviation.org/Files/
RelatedEntities/Aerial_Applicators_Manual.pdf.
10 The additive used in the fuel to scavenge lead
dctcnnincs the chemical fonn of the lead halide emitted;
because ethylene dbromide is added to leaded aviation
gasoline used in piston-engine aircraft, the lead halide
emitted is in the form of lead dibromide.
0 EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. pp. 7-9 and AXZ7-- 39.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/l 44aF, 2006.
10 EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. p. AXZ7-39. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/I44al, 2006.
07 EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. Sections 6.5.3. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA--600/8-83/028aF--dF (NTIS
PB87142386), 1986.
10 EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. Section
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) population, with attention to implications
pollutant. "66 There are 527 seaport facilities in related to environmental justice (E.J) and the
the U.S., and landing and take-off activity by population of children in this near-source
seaplanes at these facilities provides a direct environment. Consideration ofEJ implications
pathway for emission of organic and inorganic in the population living near airports is
lead to the air near/above inland waters and important because blood lead levels in
ocean seaports where these aircraft children from low-income households remain
operate, 161o9norm2n3 Inland airports may also higher than those in children from higher
provide a direct pathway for emission of income households, and the most exposed
organic and inorganic lead to the air Black children still have higher blood lead
near/above inland waters. Lead emissions levels than the most exposed non-
from piston-engine aircraft operating at
seaplane facilities as well as airports an
heliports near water bodies can enter the
aquatic ecosystem by either deposition from
ambient air or runoff of lead deposited to
surface soils.
In addition to deposition of lead from
engine emissions by piston-powered aircraft,
lead may enter aquatic systems from the pre-
flight inspection of the fuel for contaminants
that pilots conduct. While some pilots return
the checked fuel to their fuel tank or dispose
of it in a receptacle provided on the airfield,
some pilots discard the fuel onto the tarmac,
ground, or water, in the case of a fuel check
being conducted on a seaplane. Lead in the
fuel discarded to the environment may
evaporate to the air and may be taken up by
the surface on which it is discarded. Lead on
tarmac or soil surfaccs is available for runoff
to surface water. Tetraethyl lead in the avgas
directly discarded to water will be available
for uptake and bioaccumulation in aquatic life.
The National Academy of Sciences Airport
Cooperative Research Program (ACRP)
conducted a survey study of pilots' fuel
sampling and disposal practices. Among the
I 46 pilots responding to the survey, 3 6 percent
indicated they discarded all fuel check
samples to the ground regardless of
contamination status and 19 percent of the
pilots indicated they discarded only
contaminated fuel to the ground.114 Leaded
avgas discharged to the ground and water
includes other hazardous fuel components
such as ethylene dibromide.115
5. Consideration of Environmental
Justice and Children in Populations Residing
Near Airports
This section provides a description of how
many people live in close proximity to
airports where they may be exposed to
airborne lead from aircraft engine emissions
of lead (referred to here as the "near-airport"
population). This section also provides the
demographic composition of the near- airport
62766
10» 2.2.2.1.EPA, Washington, DC, EPA-600/8-83/ 028aF--
dF (NTIS P887 I 42386), 1986.
Vo EPA (1986) AQC for Lead. Section 7.2.2.2.2. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA-600/8-83/028aF-dF (NTIS
PB87142386), 1986.
EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 6.4.2.
"Bio geochemistry and Chemical Effects of Pb in
Freshwater and Saltwater Systems."p. 6-147. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
EPA (2002) Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic
Pollutants (PBT) Program. PBT National Action Plan for
Alkyl-Pb. Washington, DC. June. 2002.
See FAA's NASR. Available at https://
wwwfaa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/aero_
datale NASR_Browser/.
HM National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine 2014. Best Practices for General Aviation Aircraft
Fuel-Tank Sampling. Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press. https://doi.org/ 10.1722622343.
HS Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ-OAR-- 2022-0389.
Potential Exposure to Non-exhaust Lead and Ethylene
Dibromide. June 15, 2022. Docket ID EPA--HQ -2022
0389.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
Hispanic White children.11on7s blood lead levels in children with increasing
Executive Orders 12898 (59 FR 7629, proximity to airports. 2on21
February 16, 1994) and 14008 (86 FR 7619, We first summarize here the literature on
February I, 2021) direct Federal agencies, to disparity with regard to those who live in
the greatest extent practicable and permitted proximity to airports. Then we describe the
by law, to make achieving EJ part of their analyses the EPA has conducted to evaluate
mission by identifying and addressing, as potential disparity in the population groups
appropriate, disproportionately high and living near runways where piston- engine
adverse human health or environmental effects aircraft operate compared to those living
of their programs, policies, and activities on elsewhere.
people of color populations and low-income Numerous studies have found that
populations in the United States. The EPA environmental hazards such as air pollution
defines environmental justice as the fair are more prevalent in areas where people of
treatment and meaningful involvement of all color and low-income populations represent a
people regardless of race, color, national higher fraction of the population compared
origin, or income with respect to the with the general population, including near
development, implementation, and transportation sources, 122123178179180 The
enforcement of environmental laws, literature includes studies that have reported
regulations, and policies. on communities in close proximity to airports
For the reasons described in that are disproportionately represented by
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Section D, people of color and low-income populations.
our consideration of EJ implications here is McNair (2020) described nineteen major
focused on describing conditions relevant to airports that underwent capacity expansion
the most recent year for which demographic projects between 2000 and 2010, thirteen of
data are available. The analysis described here which had a large concentration or presence of
provides information regarding whether some persons of color, foreign-born persons or low-
demographic groups are more highly income populations nearby.181 Woodburn
represented in the near-airport environment (2017) reported on changes in communities
compared with people who live farther from near airports from 1970--2010, finding
airports. Residential proximity to airports suggestive evidence that at many hub airports
implies that there is an increased potential for over time, the presence of marginalized
exposure to lead from covered aircraft engine groups residing in close proximity to airports
emissions."? As described in Section II.A.3 of increased."? Rissman et al. (2013) reported
this document, several studies have measured that with increasing proximity to the
higher concentrations of lead in air near Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International
airports with piston-engine aircraft activity. Airport, exposures to particulate matter were
Additionally, as noted in Section IL.A of this higher, and there were lower home values,
document, two studies have reported increased income, education, and percentage of white
residents. I"?
62767
The EPA used two approaches to understand
whether some members of the population
(e.g., children five and under, people of color,
indigenous populations, low-income
populations) represent a larger share of the
people living in proximity to airports where
piston-engine aircraft operate compared with
people who live farther away from these
airports. In the first approach, we evaluated
people living within, and children attending
school within, 500 meters of all of the
approximately 20,000 airports in the U.S.,
usmg methods described in the EPA's report
titled "National Analysis of the Populations
Residing Near or Attending
Science & Technology 48: 4063-4068. https://
doi.org/10.102l/es405167f.
7%Marshall 2008. Environmental inequality: air pollution
exposures in California's South Coast Air
Basin. Atmospheric Environment 215499-5503.
htups://doi.org/10.1016/j.ato.sen.2008.02.005.
7fessum et al., 2021. PM.s polluters disproportionately
and systemically affect people of color in the United States.
Science Advances T:eabf4491.
10Moh1ai et al., 2009. Environmental justice. Anmual
Reviews 34:405-430. Available at ht/ps://
doi.org/10.1 46/anrev-environ-082508-094348.
%IMcNair 2020. Investigation of environmental justice
analysis in airport planning practice from 2000 to 2010.
Transportation Research Part D 81:102286.
12odbumn 2017. Investigating neighborhood change in
airport-adjacent communities in multiairport regions from
1970 to 2010. Journal of the Transportation Research
Board, 2626, 1-8.
189Rissman et al., 2013. Equity and health impacts of
aircraft emissions at the Hartfield-Jackson Atlanta
Intemational Airport. Landscape and Urban Planning, 120:
234-247.
School Near U.S. Airports, "PM1n the second
approach, we evaluated people living near the
NPIAS airports in the conterminous 48 states.
As noted in Section II.A. I of this document,
the NPIAS airports support the majority of
piston-engine aircraft activity that occurs in
the U.S. Among the NPIAS airports, we
compared the demographic composition of
people living within one kilometer of runways
with the demographic composition of people
6 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 5.4. "Summary." p.
5-40. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/ 600/R--10/075F, 2013.
7 EPA. America's Children and the Environment.
Summary of blood lead levels in children updated in 2022,
available at https://
www.epa.gov/americaschildrenenvironment/ biomonitoring-
/ead. Data source: Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Report on Human
Exposure to Environmental Chemicals. Blood Lead (2011--
2018). Updated March 2022. Available at
https://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/reportpdfi
cgr0up2_1BXBPB_2011-p.pdf.
The relative contribution of lead emissions from
covered aircraft engines to these disparities has not been
detennined and is not a goal of the evaluation described
here.
Residential proximity to a source of a specific air
pollutant(s) is a widely used surrogate measure to evaluate
the potential for higher exposures to that pollutant (EPA
Technical Guidance for Assessing Environmental Justice in
living at a distance of one to five kilometers from the same airports.
The distances analyzed for those people living closest to airports (i.e., distances of 500
meters and 1,000 meters) were chosen for evaluation following from the air quality monitoring
and modeling data presented in Section 11.A.3 of this document. Specifically, the EPA's
modeling and monitoring data indicate that concentrations of lead from piston- engine aircraft
emissions can be elevated above background levels at distances of 500 meters over a rolling
three-month period. On individual days, concentrations of lead from piston- engine aircraft
emissions can be elevated above background levels at distances of 1,000 meters on individual
days downwind of a runway, depending and under, Black, Asian, and Native
on aircraft activity and prevailing wind American or Alaska Native) living
Regulatory Analysis. Section 4.2.1). Data presented in
Section 11.A.3 demonstrate that lead concentrations in air
near the mnup area can exceed the lead NAAQS and
concentrations decrease sharply with distance from the
ground-based aircraft exhaust and vary with the amount of
aircraft activity at an airport. Not all people living within
500 meters of a runway are expected to be equally exposed
to lead.
1a0 Miranda et al., 2011. A Geospatial Analysis of the
Effects of Aviation Gasoline on Childhood Blood Lead
Levels. Environmental Health Perspectives. 119:1513-
1516.
? Zahran et al., 2017. The Effect of Leaded Aviation
Gasoline on Blood Lead in Children. Journal of the
Association of Environmental and Resource Economists.
4(2):575-610.
Rowangould 2013. A census of the near- roadway
population: public health and environmental justice
considerations. Transportation Research Pant D 25:59--67.
htups:// dx.doi.org//0.10I6/j.trd.2013.08.003.
» Marshall et al., 2014. Prioritizing environmental
justice and equality: diesel emissions in Sothem
Califomia. Envromental
EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420-R-20-003, 2020. EPA
responses to peer review comments on the report are
available at https://nepis.epa.gov/Exel
ZyPDF cg@?Dockey PI0OYISM.pdf.
I R eg ister/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62768
direction,/25 126 127 within 500 meters of an "National Analysis of the Populations groups in the state population. "?I
airport runway Residing Near or Attending School Near Results of this analysis are presented in U.S.
Because the U.S. has a dense network Airports, "I8 From this analysis, the following tables. ? This state-level the EPA
with the percent by age, race, and of airports, estimates that approximately analysis presents summary information 5.2 million people live
many of which have indigenous within 500 for a subset of potentially relevant meters of an airport runway, 363,000 of
peoples comprising the state neighboring demographic characteristics. We present whom are children age five and under. data in this
communities, we first population. "%0 section regarding a wider The EPA also estimates that 573 schools array of demographic
Using the methodology quantified the number characteristics attended by 163,000 children in when evaluating populations living near
of people living described in Clarke kindergarten through twelfth grade are NPIAS airports.
(2022), the EPA and children attending school within 500 meters of an airport Among children five and under, there
within identified states in which children, runway,l9 were three states (Nevada, South
500 meters of the approximately 20,000 In order to identify potential Carolina, and South Dakota), in which disparities in
Black, Asian, and Native American or airports the near-airport the percent of children five and under population, we first evaluated
in the U.S. The results of this Alaska Native· living within 500 meters ofa runway populations at the state level. Using the represent a
populations represent a analysis are greater fraction of the U.S. Census· population data for each population by a difference of one
summarized at the national greater fraction State in the U.S., we compared the percent or greater compared with the percent of
of the population scale in the EPA's report people by age, race and percent of children five and under in indigenous peoples (i.e.,
titled compared with the percent of these children five the state population (Table 3).
TABLE 3THE POPULATION OF CHILDREN FIVE YEAR S AND UNDER WITHIN 500 METE RS OF AN AIRP ORT RUNWAY
COMPARED TO THE STATE POP ULATION OF CHILDREN FIVE YEAR S AND UNDER
State
Nevada .
South Carolina ..
South Dakota ..
Percent of Percent of Number of Number of
children aged children aged children aged children aged
five years and five years and five years and five years and
under within under within the under within under in the
500 meters state 500 meters state
10 8 1,000 224,200
9 8 400 361,400
11 9 3,000 71,300
There were nine states in which the Black
population represented a greater fraction of
the population living in the near-airport
environment by a difference of one percent or
greater compared with the state as a whole.
These states were
emissions, and the wide range of activity of piston- engine
aircraft at airports nationwide suggests that exposure to
lead from aircraft emissions is likely to vary widely.
jn this analysis, we included populations living in
census blocks that intersected the 500- meter buffer around
cach runway in the U.S. Potential uncertainties in this
approach are described in our report National Analysis of
the Populations Residing Near or Attending School Near
U.S. Airports. EPA-420-R-20-001, available at
https://epis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi?Dockey=
P100YG4A.pdf, and in the EPA responses to peer review
comments on the report, available here;
https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe!ZyPDE. cgi?
Dockey.-PIO0YISM.pdf.
19EPA (2020) National Analysis of the
Populations Residing Near or Attending School
Near U.S. Airports. EPA- 420-R--20-001. Available
» EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne
Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420-R-20-003, 2020.
6 Carr et. al., 20II. Development and evaluation of an
air quality modeling approach to assess near- field impacts
California, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Nevada, South Carolina,
West Virginia, and Wisconsin (Table 4).
at https://hepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDE.cgi?Dockey-
PIO0YG4A.pdf.
19Clarke. Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ-- OAR-
2022--0389, Estimation of Population Size and
Demographic Characteristics among People Living Near
Airports by State in the United States. May 31, 2022.
Docket ID EPA--HQ-2022-0389.
%Clarke. Memorandum to Docket EPA--IQ-- OAR-
2022-0389. Estimation of Population Size and
Demographic Characteristics among People Living Near
Airports by State in the United States. May 31, 2022.
Docket ID EPA-HQ-2022-0389.
19p1ese data are presented in tabular form for all states
in this memorandum located in the dockc!: Clarke.
Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ-- OAR-2022-0389.
Estimation of Population Size and
Demographic Characteristics among People Living Near
Airports by State in the United States. May 31, 2022.
Docket ID EPA -HQ 2022-0389.
of lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation gasoline.
Atmospheric Environment, 45 (32), 5795--5804.
DOI: https:/dx.dot.org/I0.1016lj.atmosen. 2011.07.017.
127 e do not assume or expect that all people living within 500m or 1,000m of a runway are exposed to lead from
piston-engine aircraft
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62769
TABLE 4-THE BLACK POPULATION WITHIN 500 METERS OF AN AIRPORT RUNWAY AND THE BLACK POPULATION, BY STATE
Black
population
within 500 State
Percent Black
within 500
California .
Kansas .
Kentucky .
Louisiana ..
Mississippi .
Nevada , .
South Carolina .
West Virginia .
Wisconsin .
meters
8
8
9
46
46
12
31
10
9
Percent Black
within the state meters
7 18,981
6 1,240
8 3,152
32 14,669
37 8,542
9 1,794
28 10,066
3 1,452
6 4,869
Black
population in
the state
2,486,500
173,300
342,800
1,463,000
1,103,100
231,200
1,302,900
63,900
367,000
There were three states with a greater environment compared with the state as
of Asians in the near-airport a whole by a difference of one percent Hampshire (Table 5).
or greater: Indiana, Maine, and New fraction
TABLE 5-THE ASIAN POPULATION WITHIN 500 METERS OF AN AIRPORT RUNWAY AND THE ASIAN POPULATION, BY STATE
State
Indiana .
Maine .
New Hampshire .
Asian Asian Percent Asian Percent Asian population
within 500 within the state within 500 population in
meters meters the state
4 2 1,681 105,500
2 406 13,800
4 2 339 29,000
Among Native Americans and Alaska the population they comprise at the 16,000 Alaska Natives were estimated to
Natives, there were five states (Alaska, state level by u difference of one percent live within 500 meters of a runway,
Arizona, Delaware, South Dakota, and or greater. In Alaska, as anticipated due representing 48 percent of the New Mexico) where
the near-airport to the critical nature of air travel for the population within 500 meters of an population had greater
representation transportation infrastructure in that airport runway compared with 15 by Native Americans and Alaska state, the
disparity in residential percent of the Alaska state population Natives compared with the portion of proximity to a runway was the
largest; (Table 6).
TABLE 6-THE NATIVE AMERICAN AND ALASKA NATIVE POPULATION WITHIN 500 METERS OF AN AIRPORT RUNWAY AND
THE NATIVE AM ERICAN AND ALASKA NATIVE POPULATION, BY STATE
State
Alaska .
Arizona .
Delaware .
New Mexico .
South Dakota ..
Percent Native Native Native
American and Percent Native American and American and
Alaska Native American and Alaska Native Alaska Native Alaska Native population within 500 within the state within 500 population in
meters meters the state
48 15 16,020 106,300
18 5 5,017 335,300
2 112 5,900
21 10 2,265 208,900
22 9 1,606 72,800
In a separate analysis, the EPA focused on
evaluating the potential for disparities in
populations residing near the NPIAS airports.
The EPA compared the demographic
composition of people living within one
kilometer of runways at 2,022 of the
approximately 3,300 NPIAS airports with the
demographic composition of people living at
a distance of one to five kilometers from
the same airports.193194 In this analysis,
?For this analysis, we evaluated the 2,022 airports with
a population of greater than I00 people inside the zero to
one kilometer distance to avoid low population counts
distorting the assessment of percent contributions of each
group to the total population within the zero to one
kilometer distance.
%Kamal et.al., Memorandum to Docket EPA-
HQ-OAR-2022-0389. Analysis of Potential
Disparity in Residential Proximity to Airports in the
Conterminous United States. May 24, 2022. Docket ID
EPA--HQ--2022-0389. Methods used are described in this
memo and include the use of block group resolution data to
evaluate the
of children under five living one to five
kilometers away (Table 7). There were 666
airports where people of color had a greater
presence in the zero to one kilometer area
closest
representation of different demographic groups near-airport
and for those living one to five kilometers away.
over one-fourth of airports (@.e., 515) were
identified at which children under five were
more highly represented in the zero to one
kilometer distance compared with the percent
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62770
to airport runways than in populations represented a higher proportion of the two-times the Federal Poverty Level farther away. There
were 761 airports overall population within one kilometer among people living one to five where people living at less than two-
of airport runways compared with the kilometers away. times the Federal Poverty Level proportion of people living at
less than
TABLE 7-NUMBER OF AIRPORTS (/AM ONG THE 2,022 AIRPORTS EVALUATED) WITH DISPARITY FOR CERTAIN DEMOGRAPHIC
POPULATIONS WITHIN ONE KILOMETER OF AN AIRPORT RUNWAY IN RELATION TO THE COMPARISON POPU-
LATION BETWEEN ONE AND FIVE KILOMETERS FROM AN AIRPORT RUNWAY
Number of airports with disparity
Demographic group I Total airports Disparity Disparity Disparity Disparity
with disparity 1--5% 5-10% 10--20% 20%+
-------
Children under five years of age ......................................... 515 507 7 1 0
People with income less than twice the Federal Poverty
Level ................................................................................. 761 307 223 180 51
People of Color (all races, ethnicities and indigenous peoples
.................................................................................. 666 377 126 123 40
Non-Hispanic Black .............................................................. 405 240 77 67 21
Hispanic ..................................................... : ......................... 551 402 85 47 17
Non-Hispanic Asian ............................................................. 268 243 18 4 3
Non-Hispanic Native American or Alaska Native"?%........ 144 130 6 7 1
Non-Hispanic Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ......................... 18 17 1 0 0
Non-Hispanic Other Race .................................................... 11 11 0 0 0
Non-Hispanic Two or More Races ...................................... 226 226 0 0 0
To understand the extent of the potential
disparity among the 2,022 NPIAS airports,
Table 7 provides infonnation about the
distribution in the percent differences in the
proportion of children, individuals with
incomes below two-times the Federal Poverty
Level, and people of color living within one
kilometer of a runway compared with those
living one to five kilometers away. For
children, Table 7 indicates that for the vast
majority of these airports where there is a
higher percentage of children represented in
the near-airport population, differences are
relatively small (e.g., less than five percent).
For the airports where disparity is evident on
the basis of poverty, race and ethnicity, the
disparities are potentially large, ranging up to
42 percent for those with incomes below two-
times the Federal Poverty Level, and up to 45
percent for people of color.129
There are uncertainties in the results
provided here inherent to the proximity-
based approach used. These uncertainties
include the use of block group data to provide
population numbers for each demographic
group analyzed, and uncertainties in the
Census data, including from the use of data
from different analysis years (e.g., 2010
Census Data and 2018 income data). These
uncertainties are described, and their
implications discussed in
Kamal et.al. (2022)197
The data summarized here indicate that
there is a greater prevalence of children under
five years of age, an at- risk population for
lead effects, within 500 meters or one
s This analysis of 2,022 NPIAS airports did not include
airports in Alaska.
2% Kamal et.al., Memorandum to Docket EPA--
kilometer of some airports compared to more
distant locations. This information also
indicates that there is a greater prevalence of
people of color and of low-income
populations within 500 meters or one
kilometer of some airports compared with
people living more distant. If such differences
were to contribute to disproportionate and
adverse impacts on people of color and low-
income populations, they could indicate a
potential EJ concern. Given the number of
children in close proximity to runways,
including those in EJ populations, there is a
potential for substantial implications for
children's health. The EPA invites comment
on the potential EJ impacts of aircraft lead
emissions from aircraft engines and on the
potential impacts on children in close
proximity to runways where piston-engine
aircraft operate.
B. Federal Actions To Reduce Lead Exposure
The federal government has a longstanding
commitment to programs to reduce exposure
to lead, particularly for children. In December
2018, the President's Task Force on
197Kamal et.al., Memorandum to Docket EPA
HQ-OAR-2022-0389. Analysis of Potential
Disparity in Residential Proximity to Airports in the
Conterminous United States. May 24, 2022. Docket ID
EPA-HQ -2022- 0389.
HQ-OAR--2022-0389. Analysis of Potential
Environmental Health Risks and Safety
Risks to Children released the Federal Lead
Action Plan, detailing the federal
government's commitments and actions to
reduce lead exposure in children, some of
which are described in this section.198 In this
section, we describe some of the EPA's
actions to reduce lead exposures from air,
water, lead-based paint, and contaminated
sites.
In 1976, the EPA listed lead under CAA
section 108, making it what is called a
"criteria air pollutant "l Once lead was
listed, the EPA issued primary and secondary
NAAQS under sections 109(b)(l) and (2),
respectively. The EPA issued the first NAAQS
for lead in I 978 and revised the lead NAAQS
in 2008 by reducing the level of the standard
from 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter to 0.15
micrograms per cubic meter, and revising the
averaging time and form to an average over a
consecutive three- month period, as described
in 40 CFR
50.16.30%The EPA's 2016 Federal Register
notice describes the Agency's decision to
retain the existing Lead
18Federal Lead Action Plan to Reducc
Childhood Lead Exposures and Associated Health
Impacts. (2018) President's Task Force on
Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks to Children.
Available at https://www.epa.gov/sites/ defal/files/2018-
12/documents/fedactionplan_lead_fin al.pdf.
Disparity in Residential Proximity to Airports in the
Conterminous United States. May 24, 2022. Docket ID
EPA-HQ-2022-0389.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
9941 FR 14921 (April 8, 1976). See also, e.g., 8I FR at 109Effective in Jan. 20I4, the amount of lead pemitted in
71910 (O ct. 18, 2016) for a description of the history of the pipes, fillings, and fixtures was
listing decision for lead under CAA section 108. Also under section 1412 of the SOWA, the
0013 FR 66965 (Nov. 12, 2008). EPA's 1991 Lead and Copper Rule?06
NAAQS." The Lead NAAQS is currently regulates lead in public drinking water
undergoing review?? systems through corrosion control and other
States are primarily responsible for utility actions which work together to
ensuring attainment and maintenance of the minimize lead levels at the tap.77 0n January
NAAQS. Under section 110 of the Act and 15, 2021, the agency published the Lead and
related provisions, states are to submit, for Copper Rule Revisions (LCRR) and
EPA review and, if appropriate, approval, subsequently reviewed the rule in accordance
state implementation plans that provide for with Executive Order 13990.70% While the
the attainment and maintenance of such LCRR took offeot in Deoombor 2021, the
standards through control programs directed agency concluded that there are significant
to sources of the pollutants involved. The opportunities to improve the LCRR.20 The
states, in conjunction with the EPA, also EPA is developing a new proposed rule, the
administer the Prevention of Significant Lead and Copper Rule Improvements
Deterioration pr o gr am for these pollutants. (LCRI)? that would further strengthen the
Additional EPA programs to address lead in lead drinking water regulations. The EPA
the environment include the Federal Motor identified priority improvements for the
Vehicle Control program under Title II of the LCRI: proactive and equitable lead service
Act, which involves controls for motor line replacement (LSLR), strengthening
vehicles and nonroad engines and equipment; compliance tap sampling to better identify
the new source performance standards under communities most at risk of lead in drinking
section 111 of the Act; and emissions water and to compel lead reduction actions,
standards for solid waste incineration units and reducing the complexity of the regulation
and the national emission standards for through improvement of "methods to identify
hazardous air pollutants (NESHAP) under and trigger action in communities that are
sections 129 and 112 of the Act, respectively. most at risk of elevated drinking water
The EPA has taken a number of actions levels."?2The EPA intends to propose the
associated with these air pollution control LCRI and take final action on it prior to
programs, including completion of several October 16, 2024.
regulations requiring reductions in lead Federal programs to reduce exposure to
emissions from stationary sources regulated lead in paint, dust, and soil are specified
under the CAA sections 112 and 129. For under the comprehensive federal regulatory
example, in January 2012, the EPA updated framework developed under the Residential
the NESHAP for the secondary lead smelting Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act
source category." These amendments to the (Title X). Under Title X (codified, in part, as
original maximum achievable control Title IV of the Toxic Substances Control Act
technology standards apply to facilities [TSCA]), the EPA has established regulations
nationwide that use furnaces to recover lead and associated programs in six categories: (I)
from lead- bearing scrap, mainly from Training, certification and work practice
automobile batteries. Regulations completed requirements for persons engaged in lead-
in 2013 for commercial and industrial solid based paint activities (abatement, inspection
waste incineration units also require and risk assessment); accreditation of training
reductions in lead emissions?% providers; and authorization of state and
A broad range of Federal programs beyond Tribal lead-based paint programs; (2) training,
those that focus on air pollution control certification, and work practice requirements
provide for nationwide reductions in for persons
environmental releases and human exposures
to lead. For example, pursuant to section 1417
of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), any
pipe, pipe or plumbing fitting or fixture,
solder, or flux for potable water applications
may not be used in new installations or
repairs or introduced into commerce unless it
is considered "lead free" as defined by that
Act.20
a0191 FR 71912--71913 (0ct. 18, 2016).
20pocuments pertaining to the current review of the
NAAQS for Lead can be found here: https://
www.epa.gov/naaqslead-pb-air-quality-standards.
077 FR 555 (Jan. 5, 2012).
078 FR 9112 (Feb. 7, 2013).
lowered. See, Section 1417 of the Safe Drinking Water Act:
Prohibition on Use of Lead Pipes, Solder, and Flux at
https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/use- lead-free-pipes-fittings-
fixtures-solder-and-flux- drinking-water
10640 CFR I4I Subpart I (June 7, 1991).
0740 CFR II Subpart I (June 7, 1991).
0g6 FR 4198. (Jan. 15, 2021).
309p,0, 13990, Protecting Public Health and the
Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate
Crisis. 86 FR 7037 (Jan. 20, 2021).
a186 FR 31939. (Dec. 17, 2021).
lee https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and- drinking-
water/review-national-primary-drinking- water-regulation-
lead-and-copper Accessed on Nov. 30, 2021.
3086 FR 31939 (D ec. 17, 2021).
62771
engaged in home renovation, repair and
painting (RRP) activities; accreditation of
RRP training providers; and authorization of
state and Tribal RRP programs; (3) ensuring
that, for most housing constructed before
1978, information about lead-based paint and
lead-based paint hazards flows from sellers to
purchasers, from landlords to tenants, and
from renovators to owners and occupants; (4)
establishing standards for identifying
dangerous lcvcls of lcad in paint, dust and
soil; (5) providing grant funding to establish
and maintain state and Tribal lead-based paint
programs; and (6) providing information on
lead hazards to the public, including steps that
people can take to protect themselves and
their families from lead-based paint hazards.
The most recent rules issued under Title IV of
TSCA revised the dust-lead hazard standards
(DLHS) and dust-lead clearance levels
(DLCL) which were established in a 2001
final rule entitled "Identification of
Dangerous Levels of Lead."21 The DLHS are
incorporated into the requirements and risk
assessment work practice standards in the
EPA's Lead-Based Paint Activities Rule,
codified at 40 CFR part 745, subpart L. They
provide the basis for risk assessors to
determine whether dust-lead hazards are
present in target housing (i.e., most pre-1978
housing) and child-occupied facilities (pre-
1978 nonresidential properties where children
6 years of age or under spend a significant
amount of time such as daycare centers and
kindergartens). If dust-lead hazards are
present, the risk assessor will identify
acceptable options for controlling the hazards
in the respective property, which may include
abatements and/or interim controls. In July
2019, the EPA published a final rule revising
the DLHS from 40 micrograms per square
foot and 250 micrograms per square foot to
10 micrograms per square foot and JOO
micrograms per square foot of lead in dust on
floors and windowsills, respectively?H The
DLCL are used to evaluate the effectiveness
of a cleaning following an abatement. If the
dust-lead levels are not below the clearance
levels, the components (i.e., floors,
windowsills, troughs) represented by the
failed sample(s) shall be recleaned and
retested. In January 2021, the EPA published
a final rule revising the DLCL to match the
DLHS, lowering them from 40 micrograms
per square foot and 250 micrograms per
square foot to 10 micrograms per square foot
and JOO micrograms per square foot on floors
66 FR 1206 (Jan. 5, 2001).
184 FR 32632 (July 9, 2019).
and windowsills, respectively,/30131215 The
EPA is.now reconsidering the 2019 and
2021 rules in accordance with Executive
1 FR 983 (Jan. 7, 2021). Ill FR 7037 (Ja. 20, 2021)
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
Order 13990216and in response to a May 2021 endangerment, commence a study of lead
decision by U.S. Court of emissions from piston-engine aircraft. In
Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. 2007, the EPA issued a Federal Register
Programs associated with the notice on the petition requesting comments
Comprehensive Environmental and information related to a wide range of
Response, Compensation, and Liability issues regarding the use of leaded av gas and
At (CERCLA or Superfund)132 and Resource potential public health and welfare exposure
Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA)? also issues.13617The EPA did not receive new
implement removal and remedial response information to inform the evaluation of
programs that reduce exposures to the release whether lead emissions from aircraft engines
or threat of a release of lead and other using leaded avgas cause or contribute to air
hazardous substances. The EPA develops and pollution which may reasonably be
impleuenuts protective levels for lead In soll at anticipated to endanger public health or
Superfund sites and, together with states, at welfare.
RCRA corrective action facilities. The Office In 2010, the EPA further responded to the
of Land and Emergency Management 2006 petition from Friends of the Earth by
develops policy and guidance for addressing issuing an Advance Notice of Proposed
multimedia lead contamination and Rulemaking on Lead
determining appropriate response actions at Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft
lead sites. Federal programs, including those Using Leaded Aviation Gasoline (ANPR).222
implementing RCRA, provide for In the ANPR, the EPA described information
management of hazardous substances in currently available and information being
hazardous and municipal solid waste (e.g., 66 collected that would be used by the
FR 58258, November 20, 2001 ). Administrator to issue a subsequent proposal
regarding whether, in the Administrator's
judgment, aircraft lead emissions from
aircraft using leaded avgas cause or contribute
to air pollution which may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or
welfare. After issuing the ANPR, the EPA
continued the data collection and evaluation
of information that is described in Sections
II.A, IV and V of this action.
In 2012, Friends of the Earth, Physicians
for Social Responsibility, and Oregon
Aviation Watch filed a new petition claiming
that, among other things, the EPA had
unreasonably delayed in responding to the
2006 petition from Friends of the Earth
because it had failed to determine whether
emissions of lead from general aviation
aircraft engines cause or contribute to air
pollution which may reasonably be
anticipated lo endanger public health or
welfare.138 The EPA responded to the 2012
petition with our plan for collecting the
necessary information and conducting a
proceeding under CAA section 231 regarding
whether lead emissions from piston-engine
aircraft cause or contribute to air pollution
that may reasonably be anticipated to
endanger public health or welfare. Friends of
the Earth, Physicians for Social
Responsibility, and Oregon Aviation Watch
submitted a petition for reconsideration in
201422 to which the
EPA responded in 2015.225
In 2021, Alaska Community Action on
C. History of Lead Endangerment
Petitions for Rulemaking and the EPA
Resp onses
The Administrator's proposed findings
further respond to several citizen petitions on
this subject including the following: petition
for rulemaking submitted by Friends of the
Earth in 2006, petition for rulemaking
submitted by Friends of the Earth, Oregon
Aviation Watch and Physicians for Social
Responsibility in 2012, petition for
reconsideration submitted by Friends of the
Earth, Oregon Aviation Watch, and Physicians
for Social Responsibility in 2014, and petition
for rulemaking from Alaska Community
Action on Toxics, Center for
Environmental Health, Friends of the
Earth, Montgomery-Gibbs
Environmental Coalition, Oregon
Aviation Watch, the County of Santa
Clara, CA, and the Town of Middleton,
WI in 2021. These petitions and the
EPA's responses are described here.'?
In a 2003 letter to the EPA, Friends of the
Earth initially raised the issue of the potential
for lead emissions from the use of leaded
avgas in general aviation aircraft using piston
engines to cause or contribute to
endangerment of public health or welfare. '3%
In 2006, Friends of the Earth filed a petition
with the EPA requesting that the
Administrator find endangerment or, if there
was insufficient information to find
for more information about the EPA's CERCLA
program, see www.epa.gov/superfund.
1» For more information about the EPA's RCRA
program, see https://www.epa.gov/rcra.
See https://ww.epa.gov/regulations- emissions-
vehicles-and-engines/petitions-and-epa- response-
memorandums-related-lead. Accessed on Dec. 12, 2021.
» Friends of the Earth (formerly Bluewater Network)
comment dated Dec. 12, 2003, submitted to EPA's 68 FR
56226, published Sept. 30, 2003.
See 72 FR 64570 (Nov. 16, 2007).
17 R 22440-68 (Apr. 28, 2010).
38 petitioners filed a complaint in district court seeking
to compel EPA to respond to their 2006 petition for
rulemaking and to issue an endangerment finding and
promulgate regulations. The EPA then issued its response to
62772
Toxics, Center for Environmental
Health, Friends of the Earth,
Montgomery-Gibbs Environmental
Coalition, Oregon Aviation Watch, the
County of Santa Clara, CA, and the Town of
Middleton, WI, again petitioned the EPA to
conduct a proceeding under CAA section 231
regarding whether lead emissions from
piston-engine aircraft cause or contribute to
air pollution that may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or
welfare.226The EPA responded in 2022 noting
our intent to develop this proposal regarding
whether lead emissions from piston-engine
aircraft cause or contribute to air pollution
that may reasonably be anticipated to
endanger public health or welfare.227
III. Legal Framework for This Action
In this action, the EPA is proposing to make
two separate determinations-an
endangerment finding and a cause or
contribute finding-under section
23 l(a)(2)(A) of the Clean Air Act. The EPA
has, most recently, finalized such findings
under CAA section 231 for greenhouse gases
(GHGs) in 2016 (2016 Findings), and in that
action the EPA
EPA's motion for summary judgment on the remaining
claims, the court concluded that making the endangerment
determination is not a nondiscretionary act or duty and thus
that it lacked jurisdiction to grant the relief requested by
plaintiffs. Friends of the Earth v. EPA, 934 F. Supp. 2d 40,
55 DD.C. 2013).
Th e petition for reconsideration submitted to
EPA by Friends of the Earth, Physicians for Social
Responsibility, and Oregon Aviation Watch is available at
https://ww.epa.gov/sites/default/fles/ 2016-
09/documents/avgas-petition-reconsider-04- 21-14.pdf.
a9The 2015 EPA response to the 2014 petition for
reconsideration is available at https://
www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-09/ documents/ltr-
response-av-ld-foe-psr-oaw-2015-1- 23.pdf.
Tie 2021 petition is available at https://
www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-0I/ aviation-
leaded-avgas-petition-exhibits-final-2021- 10-12.pdf.
7ppA's response to the 2021 petition is available at
https://www.epa.gov/system/files/ documents/2022-01Ir-
response-aircraft-lead- petitions-aug-oct-2022-01-12.pdf.
provided a detailed explanation of the legal
framework for making such findings and the
statutory interpretations and caselaw
supporting its approach.139 In this proposal,
the Administrator is using the same approach
of applying a two-part test under section
23 l(a)(2)(A) as described in the 2016
Findings and is relying on the same
interpretations supporting that approach,
which are briefly described in this Section,
and set forth in greater detail in the 2016
the petition, mooting that claim of the complaint. In
response to
1 FR 54422--54475 (Aug. 15, 2016).
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
Findings.'0This is also the same approach
that the EPA used in making endangerment
and cause and contribute findings for GHGs
under section 202(a) of the CAA in 2009
(2009 Findings),7 which was affirmed by the
U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in
2012, 1421431 As explained further in the 2016
Findings, the text of the CAA section
concerning aircraft emissions in section
231(a)2)(A4) mirrors the text of CAA section
202(a) that was the basis for the 2009
Findings." Accordingly, for the same reasons
as discussed in the 2016 Findings, the EPA
believes it is reasonable to use the same
approach under section 231(a)2)A)'s similar
text as was used under section 202(a) for the
2009 Findings, and it is proposing to act
consistently with that framework for purposes
of these proposed section 231 findings.2" As
this approach has been previously discussed
at length in the 2016 and 2009 Findings, the
EPA provides only a brief description in this
proposal.
A. Statutory Text and Basis for This
Proposal
Section 231 (a)(2)(A) of the CAA provides
that the "The Administrator shall, from time
to time, issue proposed emission standards
applicable to the emission of any air pollutant
from any class or classes of aircraft engines
which in his judgment causes, or contributes
to, air pollution which may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or
welfare."145ln this proposal, the EPA is
addressing the predicate for regulatory action
under CAA section 231 through a two-part
test, which as noted previously, is the same as
the test used in the 2016 Findings and in the
2009 Findings.
As the first step of the two-part test, the
Administrator must decide whether, in his
judgment, the air pollution under
consideration may reasonably be anticipated
to endanger public health or welfare. As the
second step, the Administrator must decide
whether, in his judgment, emissions of an air
pollutant from certain classes of aircraft
engines cause or contribute to this air
pollution. If the Administrator answers both
questions in the affirmative, he will issue
standards under section
231,28
In accordance with the EPA's interpretation
of the text of section 231 (a)(2)(A), as
described in the 2016 Findings, the phrase
"may reasonably be anticipated" and the term
o See e.g, 8I FR at 55434-54440 (Aug. 19, 2016).
1+ ER 66496, 66505--10 (Dec. 15, 2009).
C oalition for Responsible Regulation, Ic. v. EPA,
684 F.3d 102 (D.C. Cir. 2012) (CRR) (subsequent history
omitted).
» FR at 55434 (Aug. 19, 2016).
FR at 55434 (Aug. 19, 2016).
> Regarding "welfare, " the CAA states that "[a]ll
language referring to effects on welfare includes, but is not
limited to, effects on soils, water, crops, vegetation,
manmade materials, animals, wildlife, weather, visibility,
"endanger" in section 23 l(a)(2)(A) authorize,
if not require, the Administrator to act to
prevent harm and to act in conditions of
uncertainty.236 They do not limit him to
merely reacting to hmm or to acting only
when certainty has been achieved; indeed, the
references to anticipation and to
endangerment imply that the failure to look to
the future or to less than certain risks would
be to abjure the Administrator's statutory
responsibilities. As the D.C. Circuit
explained, the language "may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or
welfare" in CAA section 202(a) requires a
"precautionary, forward-looking scientific
judgment about the risks of a particular air
pollutant, consistent with the CAA's
precautionary and preventive orientation, "237
The court determined that "[r]equiring that
the EPA find 'certain' endangerment of public
health or welfare before regulating
greenhouse gases would effectively prevent
the EPA from doing the job that Congress
gave it in [section] 202(a) utilizing emission
standards to prevent reasonably anticipated
endangerment from
section 302(h). Regarding "public health, " there is no
definition of "public health" in the Clean Air Act. The
Supreme Court has discussed the concept of "public
health" in the context of whether costs can be considered
when setting NAAQS. Whitman v. American 'Trucking
Ass 'h, 531 U.S. 457 (2001). In Whitman, the Court imbued
the term with its most natural meaning: "the health of the
public." Id. at 466.
9see Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497,533 (2007)
(interpreting an analogous provision in CAA section 202).
ce 81 FR at 54435 (Aug. 19, 2016).
237(€RR, 684 F.3d at 122 (intemal citations omitted) (June
26, 2012).
maturing into concrete harm, "146147The same
language appears in section 231(a)2)(A), and
the same interpretation applies in that context.
Moreover, by instructing the Administrator to
consider whether emissions ofan air pollutant
cause or contribute to air pollution in the
second part of the two-part test, the Act makes
clear that he need not find that emissions from
any one sector or class of sources are the sole
or even the major part of the air pollution
considered. This is clearly indicated by the
use of the term "contribute. " Further, the
phrase "in his judgment" authorizes the
Administrator to weigh risks and to consider
and climate, damage to and deterioration of property, and
hazards to transportation, as well as effects on economic
values and on personal comfort and well-being, whether
caused by transfonation, conversion, or combination with
other air pollutants." CAA
6 (RR, 684 F.3d at 122 (intemal citations omitted)
(June 26, 2012).
17 FR at 54425 (Aug. 19, 2016).
8 See, e.g., Rulemaking for non-road compression-
ignition engines under section 213(a)(4) of the CAA,
Proposed Rule at 58 FR
62773
projections of future possibilities, while also
recognizing uncertainties and extrapolating
from existing data.
Finally, when exercising his judgment in
making both the endangerment and cause-or-
contribute findings, the Administrator
balances the likelihood and severity of effects.
Notably, the phrase "in his judgment"
modifies both
"may reasonably be anticipated" and
"cause or contribute."
Often, past endangerment and cause or
contribute findings have been proposed
concurrently with proposed standards under
various sections of the
CAA, including section 23 1,239 Comment has
been taken on these proposed findings as part
of the notice and comment process for the
emission standards MA819 However, there is no
requirement that the Administrator propose
the endangerment and cause or contribute
findings concurrently with proposed standards
and, most recently under section 231, the EPA
made separate endangerment and cause or
contribute findings for GHGs before
proceeding to set standards.
The Administrator is applying the
rulemaking provisions of CAA section 307( d)
to this action, pursuant to CAA section
307(d)(l)(V), which provides that the
provisions of307(d) apply to "such other
actions as the Administrator may
determine, "I Any subsequent standard
setting rulemaking under CAA section 231
will also be subject to the notice and comment
rulemaking procedures under CAA section
307(d), as provided in CAA section
307(d)1)F) (applying the provisions of CAA
section 307(d) to the promulgation or revision
of any aircraft emission standard under CAA
section 231 ). Thus, these proposed findings
will be subject to the same procedural
requirements that would apply if the proposed
findings were part of a standard-setting
rulemaking.
B. Considerations for the Endangerment and
Cause or Contribute Analyses Under Section
231(a)(2}(A)
In the context of this proposal, the EPA
understands section 23 l(a)(2)(A) of the CAA
to call for the Administrator to exercise his
judgment and make two separate
determinations: first, whether the relevant
kind of air pollution (here, lead air pollution)
may reasonably be anticipated to endanger
public health or welfare, and second, whether
19,28813-14 (May 17, 1993), Final Rule at 59 FR 31306,
31318 (June 17, 1994); Rulemaking for highway heavy-
duty diesel engines and diesel sulfur fuel under sections
202(a) and 211(c) of the CAA, Proposed Rule at 65 FR
35430 (June 2, 2000), and Final Rule at 66 FR 5002 (Jan.
18, 2001)
10 As the Administrator is applying the provisions of
CAA section 307(d) to this action under section
307(d)I)V), we need not determine whether those
provisions would apply to this aclion under section
307(d)(l)(F).
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
emissions of any air pollutant from classes of identify a precise numerical value or "a
the sources in question (here, any aircraft minimum threshold ofrisk or harm before
engine that is capable of using leaded aviation determining whether an air pollutant
gasoline), cause or contribute to this air endangers. "?5% Accordingly, the EPA "may
pollution.' base an endangerment finding on 'a lesser risk
This analysis entails a scientific judgment of greater harm ... or a greater risk of lesser
by the Administrator about the potential risks harm' or any combination in
posed by lead emissions to public health and between, "159160161162 As the language in
welfare. In this proposed action, the EPA is section 231 (a)(2)(A) is analogous to that in
using the same approach in making scientific section 202(a), it is reasonable to apply this
judgments regarding endangerment as it has interpretation to the endangerment
previously described in the 2016 Findings, determination under section 23 l(a)(2)(A).252
and its analysis is guided by the same five Morcover, thc logic underlying this
principles that guided the Administrator's interpretation supports the general principle
analysis in those that under CAA section 231 the EPA is not
Findings.1? required to identify a specific minimum
Similarly, the EPA is taking the same threshold of contribution from potentially
approach to the cause or contribute analysis as subject source categories in determining
was previously explained in the 2016 whether their emissions "cause or contribute"
Findings.153 For example, as previously noted, to the endangering air pollution.253 The
section 231(a)2)A)'s instruction to consider reasonableness of this principle is further
whether emissions of an air pollutant cause or supported by the fact that section 231 does
contribute to air pollution makes clear that the not impose on the EPA a requirement to find
Administrator need not find that emissions that such contribution is "significant," let
from any one sector or class of sources are the alone the sole or major cause of the
sole or even the major part of an air pollution endangering air pollution.254
problem. "" Moreover, like the CAA section Finally, as also described in the 2016
202(a) language that governed the 2009 Findings, there are a number of possible ways
Findings, the statutory language in section of assessing whether air pollutants cause or
23 l(a)(2)(A) does not contain a modifier on contribute to the air pollution which may
its use of the term "contribute, "1 Unlike reasonably be anticipated to endanger public
other CAA provisions, it does not require health and welfare, and no single approach is
"significant" contribution. Compare, required or has been used exclusively in
e.g., CAA sections lll(b); 213(a)(2), (4). previous cause or contribute determinations
Congress made it clear that the Administrator under title II of the CAA.168
is to exercise his judgment in determining
contribution, and authorized regulatory C. Regulatory Authority for Emission
controls to address air pollution even if the air Standards
pollution problem results from a wide variety
of sources.156 While the endangennent test
looks at the air pollution being considered as
a whole and the risks it poses, the cause or
contribute test is designed to authorize the
EPA to identify and then address what may
well be many different sectors, classes, or
groups of sources that are each part of the
problem.157
Moreover, as the EPA has previously
explained, the Administrator has ample
discretion in exercising his reasonable
judgment and determining whether, under the
circumstances presented, the cause or
contribute criterion has been met.158 As noted
in the 2016 Findings, in addressing provisions
in section 202(a), the D.C. Circuit has
explained that the Act at the endangerment
finding step did not require the EPA to
" See CRR, 684 F.3d at 117 (explaining two-part
analysis under section 202(a)) (June 26, 2012).
S ee, e.g., 81 FR 54422, 54434-55435 (Aug. 15, 2016).
'' See, e.g., 81 FR at 54437-54438 (September 4, 2013).
' S ee, e.g., 8I FR at 54437-54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
' See, e.g., 8I FR at 54437-54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
See 8I FR at 54437-54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
S 7 See 8I FR at 54437-54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
See 8I FR at 54437-54438 (Aug. 15, 2016) 3CR R,
684 F.3d at 122--123 (June 26, 2012).
Though the EPA is not proposing standards
in this action, shou Id the EPA finalize these
findings, the EPA would then proceed to
propose emission standards under CAA
section 231. As noted in Section III.A of this
document, section 231 (a)(2)(A) of the CAA
directs the Administrator of the EPA to, from
time to time, propose aircraft engine emission
standards applicable to the emission of any air
pollutant from classes of aircraft engines
which in his or her judgment causes or
contributes to air pollution that may
reasonably be anticipated to endanger public
health or welfare.
CAA section 23 l(a)(2)(B) further directs
the EPA to consult with the Administrator of
the FAA on such standards, and it prohibits
the EPA from changing aircraft emission
19 CRR, 684 F.3d at 122--123. (quoting Ethyl Cor., 541
E.2d at 18) (June 26, 2012).
FR at 54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
6 FR at 54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
62774
standards if such a change would significantly
increase noise and adversely affect safety.
CAA section 231 ( a)(3) provides that after we
provide notice and an opportunity for a public
hearing on standards, the Administrator shall
issue such standards "with such modifications
as he deems appropriate." In addition, under
CAA section 23 l(b), the EPA determines, in
consultation with the U.S. Department of
Transportation (DOT), that the effective date
of any standard provides the necessary time to
permit the development and application of the
rcquisit technology, giving appropriate
consideration to the cost of compliance.
Once the EPA adopts standards, CAA
section 232 then directs the Secretary of
Transportation to prescribe regulations to
ensure compliance with the EPA's standards.
Finally, section 233 of the CAA vests the
authority to promulgate emission standards
for aircraft or aircraft engines only in the
federal government. States are preempted
from adopting or enforcing any standard
respecting aircraft or aircraft engine emissions
unless such standard is identical to the EPA's
standards. I6
IV, The Proposed Endangerment Finding
Under CAA Section 231
A. Scientific Basis of the Endangerment
Finding
1. Lead Air Pollution
Lead is emitted and exists in the
atmosphere in a variety of forms and
compounds and is emitted by a wide range of
sources.165 Lead is persistent in the
environment. Atmospheric transport distances
of airborne lead vary depending on its form
and particle size, as discussed in Section II.A
of this document, with coarse lead-bearing
particles deposited to a greater extent near the
source, while fine lead-bearing particles can
be transported long distances before being
deposited. Through atmospheric deposition,
lead is distributed to other environmental
media, including soils and surface water
bodies.166 Lead is retained in soils and
sediments, where it provides a historical
record and, depending on several factors, can
remain available in some areas for extended
periods for environmental or human exposure,
with any associated potential public health
and public welfare impacts.
For purposes of this action, the EPA is
proposing to define the "air pollution"
referred to in section 231 (a)(2)(A) of the CAA
CAA Section 233 (Dec. 31, 1970).
16S EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 2.2.
"Sources of Atmospheric Pb." p. 2-1. EPA, Washington,
DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
6 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
"Sources, Pate and 'Transport of Lead in the Environment,
and the Resulting Human Exposure and Dose." pp. lxxviii-
Ixxix. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013.
1 FR at 54438 (Aug. 15, 2016).
» See 8I FR at 54462 (Aug. 15, 2016).
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
as lead, which we also refer to as the lead air The 2013 Lead ISA characterizes the causal
pollution in this document.167 nature of relationships between lead exposure
and health effects using a weight-of- evidence
approach.171 We summarize here those health
effects for which the EPA in the 2013 Lead
ISA has concluded that the evidence supports
a determination of either a "causal
relationship," or a "likely to be causal
relationship," or for which the evidence is
"suggestive of a causal relationship" between
lead exposure and a health effect.""T?In the
discussion that follows, we summarize
findings tgardig effects observed in
children, effects observed in adults, and
additional effects observed that are not
specific to an age group.
The EPA has concluded that there is a
"causal relationship" between lead exposure
during childhood (pre and postnatal) and a
range of health effects in children, including
the following: Cognitive function decrements;
the group of externalizing behaviors
comprising attention, increased impulsivity,
and hyperactivity; and developmental effects
(i.e., delayed pubertal onset).173 In addition,
the EPA has concluded that the evidence
supports a conclusion that there is a "likely to
be causal relationship" between lead exposure
and conduct disorders in children and young
adults, internalizing behaviors such as
depression, anxiety and withdrawn behavior,
auditory function decrements, and fine and
gross motor function decrements. ""
Multiple epidemiologic studies conducted
in diverse populations of children consistently
demonstrate the harmful effects of lead
exposure on cognitive function (as measured
by decrements in intelligence quotient [IQ],
decreased academic performance, and poorer
performance on tests of executive function).
These findings arc supported by extensively
documented toxicological evidence
substantiating the plausibility of these
findings in the epidemiological literature and
2. Health Effects and Lead Air Pollution
As noted in Section II.A of this document,
in 2013, the EPA completed the Integrated
Science Assessment for Lead which built on
the findings of previous AQCDs for Lead.
These documents critically assess and
integrate relevant scientific information
regarding the health and welfare effects of
lead and have undergone extensive critical
review by the EPA, the Clean Air Soiontifio
Advisory Committee (CASAC), and the
public. As such, these assessments provide the
primary scientific and technical basis on
which the Administrator is proposing to find
that lead air pollution is reasonably
anticipated to endanger public health and
welfare, I68169
As summarized in Section II.A of this
document, human exposure to lead that is
emitted into the air can occur by multiple
pathways. Ambient air inhalation pathways
include both inhalation of air outdoors and
inhalation of ambient air that has infiltrated
into indoor environments. Additional
exposure pathways may involve media other
than air, including indoor and outdoor dust,
soil, surface water and sediments, vegetation
and biota. While the bioavailability of air-
related lead is modified by several factors in
the environment (e.g., the chemical form of
lead, environmental fate of lead emitted to
air), as described in Section II.A of this
document, it is well-documented that
exposures to air- related lead can result in
increased blood lead levels, particularly for
children living near air lead sources, who may
have increased blood lead levels due to their
proximity to these sources of exposure."7O
As described in the EPA's 2013 Lead ISA
and in prior Criteria Documents, lead has
been demonstrated to exert a broad array of
deleterious effects on multiple organ systems.
167 The lead air pollution that we arc considering in this
proposed finding can occur as elemental lead or in lead-
containing compounds, and this proposed definition of the
air pollution recognizes that lead in air (whatever for it is
found in, including in inorganic and organic compounds
containing lead) has the potential to elicit public health and
welfare effects. We note, for example, that the 2013 Lead
ISA and 2008 AQCD described the toxicokinetics of
inorganic and organic forms of lead and studies evaluating
lead-related health effects commonly measure total lead
level (i.e., all forms of lead in various biomarker tissues
such as blood).
1 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
169 EPA (2006) AQC for Lead. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA6O0/R-5/144aF, 2006.
'7o EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 5.4 . "Summary."
p. 5-40. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/ 600/R-10/075F,
2013,
7 The causal framework draws upon the assessment
and integration of evidence from across scientific
disciplines, spanning atmospheric chemistry, exposure,
dosimetry and health effects studies (i.e., epidemiologic,
controlled human exposure, and animal toxicological
studies), and assessment of the related uncertainties and
limitations that ultimately influence our understanding of
the evidence. This framework employs a five-level
hierarchy lhal classifies the overall weight-of-evidence
with respect to the causal nature of relationships between
criteria pollutant exposures and health and welfare effects
using the following categorizations: causal relationship;
likely to be causal relationship; suggestive of, but not
sufficient to infer, a causal relationship; inadequate to infer
the presence or absence of a causal relationship; and not
likely to be a causal relationship. EPA (2013) ISA for
Lead. Preamble Section. p. xliv. EPA, Washington, DC,
EPA/6OO/R-10/075F, 2013.
EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES-1. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between exposure
to Pb and health effects." pp. lxxiii-lxxxvii. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
'7 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES--1, "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between exposure
to Pb and health effects." p. Ixxxiii and p. Ixxxvi. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013.
62775
provide information on the likely mechanisms
underlying these neurotoxic effects."7?
Intelligence quotient is a well- established,
widely recognized and rigorously
standardized measure of neurocognitive
function which has been used extensively as a
measure of the negative effects of exposure to
lead.176 177 Examples of other measures of
cognitive function negatively associated with
lead exposure include measures of
intelligence and cognitive development and
cognitive abilities, such as learning, memory,
and executlve functions, as well as academlc
performance and achievement.178
In summarizing the evidence related to
neurocognitive impacts of lead at different
childhood lifestages, the 2013 Lead ISA notes
that "in individual studies, postnatal (early
childhood and concurrent [ with IQ testing])
blood lead levels are also consistently
associated with cognitive function decrements
in children and adolescents."179The 2013
Lead ISA additionally notes that the findings
from experimental animal studies indicate that
lead exposures during multiple early
lifestages and periods are observed to induce
impairments in learning, and that these
findings "are consistent with the
understanding that the nervous system
continues to develop (i.e., synaptogenesis and
synaptic pruning remains active) throughout
childhood and into adolescence, "18o The 2013
Lead ISA further notes that "it is clear that
lead exposure in childhood presents a risk;
further, there is no evidence of a threshold
below which there are no harmful effects on
cognition from lead exposure," and
additionally recognizes uncertainty about the
lead exposures that are part of the effects and
blood lead levels observed in epidemiologic
studies (uncertainties which are greater in
studies of older children and adults than in
studies of younger children).181 Evidence
suggests that while some neurocognitive
effects of lead in children may be transient,
I EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES-I. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between exposure
lo Pb and health effects." pp. lxxxiii-lxxxiv. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013.
17S EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
"Effects of Pb Exposure in Children." pp. bxxxvii- lxxxviii.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/ 075F, 2013.
176 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 4.3.2. "Cognitive
Function." p. 4-59. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA6OO/R-
10/075F, 2013.
171 EPA(2006) AQC for Lead. Sections 6.2.2 and 8.4.2.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-5/144aF, 2006.
7 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 4.3.2. "Cognitive
Function." p. 4--59. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OO/R--
10/075F, 2013.
179 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.9.4. "Pb
Exposure and Neurodevelopmenlal Deficits in Children."
p. 1--76. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/ 600/R-10/075F,
2013.
1o EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.9.4. "P
Exposure and Neurodevelopmental Deficits in Children."
p. 1-76. EPA/6O0/R--10/075E, 2013.
I» EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
"Effects of Pb Exposure in Children." pp. lxxvii- lxxxviii.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/ 075F, 2013.
I RegisterNol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
some lead-related cognitive effects may be 27EpA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
irreversible and persist into adulthood182 "Public Health Significance." p. xciii. EPA, Washington,
all tfe ' l d . {{ DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013. potentially affecting lower education@! ziEpA (2013) 1SA for Lead. Section 1.9.1.
attainment and financial well-being. "Public Health Significance." p. 1-68. EPA, Washington,
The 2013 Lead ISA concluded that DC, EPN600/R--10/075F, 2013.
neurodevelopmental effects in children were 379EpA (2013) 1SA for Lead. Section 1.9.1.
among the effects best substantiated as "Public Health Significance." p. 1-68. EPA, Washington,
. DC, EPA6O0/R-10/075F, 2013. occurring at the lowest blood lead levels, and EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Sumi4,,,
that these categories of effects were clearly of "Effects of Pb Exposure in Adults." p. lxxxviii.
the greatest concern with regard to potential EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
public health impact.276For example, in
considering population risk, the 2013 Lead
ISA notes that "[s]mall shifts in thc
population mean IQ can be highly significant
from a public health perspective" 277
Specifically, if lead- related decrements are
manifested uniformly across the range of IQ
scores in a population, "a small shift in the
population mean IQ may be significant from a
public health perspective because such a shift
could yield a larger proportion of individuals
functioning in the low range of the IQ
distribution, which is associated with
increased risk of educational, vocational, and
social failure" as well as a decrease in the
proportion with high IQ scores?78
With regard to lead effects identified for the
adult population, the 2013 Lead ISA
concluded that there is a "causal relationship"
between lead exposure and hypertension and
coronary heart disease in adults. The 2013
Lead ISA concluded that cardiovascular
effects in adults were those of greatest public
health concern for adults because the
evidence indicated that these effects occurred
at the lowest blood lead levels, compared to
other health effects, although the role of past
versus current exposures to lead is unclear.279
With regard to evidence of cardiovascular
effects and other effects of lead on adults, the
2013 Lead ISA notes that "[a] large body of
evidence from both epidemiologic studies of
adults and experimental studies in animals
demonstrates the effect of long- term lead
exposure on increased blood pressure and
hypertension. "?%on
of Pb," p. 1-76. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OO/R-
10/075F, 2013.
75EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 4.3.14. "Public
Health Significance of Associations between Pb
Biomarkers and Neurodevelopmental Effects." p. 4-279.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/ R--10/075F, 2013.
7EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.9.1.
"Public Health Significance." p. 1-68. EPA, Washington,
DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
I? EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 1.9.5.
"Reversibility and Persistence of Neurotoxic Effects
189 1PA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
"Effects of Pb Exposure in Adults." p. lxxviii.
EPA/60O/R-10/075F, 2013.
EP A (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
"Effects of Pb Exposure in Adults." p. lxxxviii.
EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013. I' EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
"Effects of Pb Exposure in Adults." p. lxxxviii.
EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
1 [P A (2013) ISA for Lead. Executive Summary.
addition to its effect on blood pressure, "lead
exposure can also lead to coronary heart
disease and death from cardiovascular causes
and is associated with cognitive function
decrements, symptoms of depression and
anxiety, and immune effects in adult
humans, "183 The extent to which the effects of
lead on the cardiovascular system arc
reversible is not well- characterized.
Additionally, the frequency, timing, level, and
duration of lead exposure causing the effects
observed in adults has not been pinpointed,
and higher exposures earlier in life may play a
role in the development of health effects
measured later in life.184 The 20 I 3 Lead ISA
states that "ijt is clear however, that lead
exposure can result in harm to the
cardiovascular system that is evident in
adulthood and may also affect a broad array
of organ systems, "I%° In summarizing the
public health significance of lead on the adult
population, the 2013 Lead ISA notes that
"small lead-associated increases in the
population mean blood pressure could result
in an increase in the proportion of the
population with hypertension that is
significant from a public health
perspective, "186
In addition to the effects summarized here,
the EPA has concluded there is a "likely to be
causal relationship" between lead exposure
and both cognitive function decrements and
psychopathological effects in adults. The
2013 Lead ISA also concludes that there is a
"causal relationship" between lead exposure
and decreased red blood cell survival and
function, altered heme synthesis, and male
reproductive function. The EPA has also
concluded there is a "likely to be causal
relationship" between lead exposure and
decreased host resistance, resulting in
"Public Health Significance." p. xciii. EPA, Washington,
DC, EPA/6OO/R--10/075F, 2013.
17 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. 'Table ES-1. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between exposure
to Pb and health effects." pp. bxxxiv-lxxxvii. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
1 EPA (2013) 1SA for Lead. Table ES-1. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between exposure
to Pb and health effects." pp. lxxxiv-lxxxvi. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/R--10/075F, 2013.
19 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Chapter 5.
"Approach to Classifying Potential At-Risk Factors." p. 5-
2. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/ R-10/075F, 2013.
62776
increased susceptibility to bacterial infection
and suppressed delayed type hypersensitivity,
and cancer 1%7
Additionally, the evidence is suggestive of
lead exposure and some additional effects.
These include auditory function decrements
and subclinical atherosclerosis, reduced
kidney function, birth outcomes (e.g., low
birth weight, spontaneous abortion), and
female reproductive function.188 The EPA has
identified factors that may increase the risk of
health effects oflead exposure due to
susceptibility and/ or vulnerability; these arc
termed "at- risk" factors. The 2013 Lead ISA
describes the systematic approach the EPA
uses to evaluate the coherence of evidence to
determine the biological plausibility of
associations between at- risk factors and
increased vulnerability and/or susceptibility.
An overall weight of evidence is used to
determine whether a specific factor results in
a population being at increased risk of lead-
related health effects.189 The 2013 Lead ISA
concludes that "there is adequate evidence
that several factors- childhood,
race/ethnicity, nutrition, residential factors,
and proximity to lead sources-confer
increased risk of lead-related health
effects. "19o
3. Welfare Effects and Lead Air
Pollution
The 2013 Lead ISA characterizes the causal
nature of relationships between lead exposure
and welfare effects using a five-level
hierarchy that classifies the overall weight-of-
evidence, 19 We summarize here the welfare
effects for which the EPA has concluded that
the evidence supports a determination of
either a "causal relationship," or a "likely to
be causal relationship," with exposure to lead,
or that the evidence is "suggestive of a causal
relationship" with lead exposure. The
discussion that follows is organized to first
provide a summary of the effects of lead in
the terrestrial environment, followed by a
summary of effects of lead in freshwater and
saltwater ecosystems. The 20 I 3 Lead ISA
further describes the scales or levels at which
these determinations between lead exposure
and effects on plants, invertebrates, and
vertebrates were made (i.e., community-level,
19 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Section 5.4. "Summary."
p. 5.44. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/ 600/R-10/075F,
2013.
19 (Causal determinations for ecological effects were
based on integration of infonation on biogeochemistry,
bioavailability, biological effects, and exposure-response
relationships of lead in terrestrial, freshwater, and saltwater
environments. This framework employs a five-level
hierarchy that classifies the overall weight-of-evidence
with respect to the causal nature ofrclationships between
criteria pollutant exposures and health and welfare effects
using the categorizations described in the 2013 Lead
NAAQS.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
ecosystem-level, population-level, organism-
level or sub-organism level). "P?
In terrestrial environments, the EPA
determined that "causal relationships" exist
between lead exposure and reproductive and
developmental effects in vertebrates and
invertebrates, growth in plants, survival for
invertebrates, hematological effects in
vertebrates, and physiological stress in
plants." The EPA also determined that there
were "likely to be causal relationships"
between lead exposure and community and
ecosystem effeots, growth in invertebrate3,
survival in vertebrates, neurobehavioral
effects in invertebrates and vertebrates, and
physiological stress in invertebrates and
vertebrates.
In freshwater environments, the EPA found
that "causal relationships" exist between lead
exposure and reproductive and developmental
effects in vertebrates and invertebrates,
growth in invertebrates, survival for
vertebrates and invertebrates, and
hematological effects in vertebrates. The EPA
also determined that there were "likely to be
causal relationships" between lead exposure
and community and ecosystem effects,
growth in plants, neurobehavioral effects in
invertebrates and vertebrates, hematological
effects in invertebrates, and physiological
stress in plants, invertebrates, and
vertebrates. I94
The EPA also determined that the evidence
for saltwater ecosystems was "suggestive of a
causal relationship" between lead exposure
and reproductive and developmental effects in
invertebrates, hematological effects in
vertebrates, and physiological stress in
invertebrates.195
The 2013 Lead ISA concludes, "With
regard to the ecological effects of lead, uptake
of lead into fauna and subsequent effects on
reproduction, growth and survival are
established and are further supported by more
recent evidence. These may lead to effects at
the population, community, and ecosystem
level of biological organization. In both
terrestrial and aquatic organisms, gradients in
response are observed with increasing
concentration of lead and some studies report
effects within the range of lead detected in
environmental media over the past several
decades. Specifically, effects on reproduction,
growth, and survival in sensitive freshwater
invertebrates are well-characterized from
controlled studies at concentrations at or near
lead concentrations occasionally encountered
192 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES-2. "Schematic
representation of the relationships between the various
MOAs by which Pb exerts its effects." p. Ixxii. EPA,
Washington, DC, EPA/600/ R--10/075F, 2013.
19» EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES-2. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between Pb
exposure and effects on plants, invertebrates, and
vertebrates." p. xc. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OOIR-
10/075F, 2013.
19 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES-2. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between Pb
in U.S. fresh surface waters. Hematological
and stress related responses in some terrestrial
and aquatic species were also associated with
elevated lead levels in polluted areas.
However, in natural environments, modifying
factors affect lead bioavailability and toxicity
and there are considerable uncertainties
associated with generalizing effects observed
in controlled studies to effects at higher levels
of biological organization. Furthermore,
available studies on community and
ecosystem- level effects are usually from
contaminated areas where lead concentration3
are much higher than typically encountered in
the environment. The contribution of
atmospheric lead to specific sites is not clear
and the connection between air concentration
of lead and ecosystem exposure continues to
be poorly characterized, "196
B. Proposed Endangerment Finding
The Administrator proposes to find, for
purposes of CAA section 231( a)(2)(A), that
lead air pollution may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger the public health and
welfare. This proposal is based on
consideration of the extensive scientific
evidence, described in this section, that has
been amassed over decades and rigorously
peer reviewed by CASAC.
V, The Proposed Cause or Contribute
Finding Under CAA Section 231
A. Proposed Definition of the Air
Pollutant
Under section 231, the Administrator is to
determine whether emissions of any air
pollutant from any class or classes of aircraft
engines cause or contribute to air pollution
which may reasonably be anticipated to
endanger public health or welfare. As in the
2016 Findings that the EPA made under
section 231 for greenhouse gases, in making
this proposed cause or contribute finding
under section 23 l(a)(2), the Administrator
first defines the air pollutant being evaluated.
The Administrator has reasonably and
logically considered the relationship between
the lead air pollution and the air pollutant
when considering emissions. of lead from
engines used in covered aircraft. The
Administrator proposes to define the air
pollutant to match the proposed definition of
the air pollution, such that the air pollutant
analyzed for contribution would mirror the air
pollution considered in the endangerment
finding. Accordingly, for purposes of this
exposure and effects on plants, invertebrates, and
vertebrates." p. xc. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OO/R--
10/075F, 2013.
1' EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. Table ES-2. "Summary of
causal determinations for the relationship between Pb
exposure and effects on plants, invertebrates, and
vertebrates." p. xc. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/6OO/R--
10/075F, 2013.
62777
action, the Administrator is proposing to
define the "air pollutant" referred to in
section 231(a)2)A) as lead, which we also
refer to as the lead air pollutant in this
document.197 As noted in Section 11.A.2 of
this document, lead emitted to the air from
covered aircraft engines is predominantly in
particulate form as lead dibromide; however,
some chemical compounds of lead that are
expected in the exhaust from these engines,
including alkyl lead compounds, would occur
in the air in gaseous form.
Under scction 231(a), the
Administrator is required to set "emission
standards applicable to the emission of any air
pollutant" from classes of aircraft engines that
the Administrator determines causes or
contributes to air pollution that may
reasonably be anticipated to endanger public
health or welfare. If the Administrator makes
a final determination under section 231 that
the emissions of the lead air pollutant from
certain classes of aircraft engines cause or
contribute to air pollution that may reasonably
be anticipated to endanger public health and
welfare, then he is called on to set standards
applicable to the emission of this air pollutant.
The term "standards applicable to the
emission of any air pollutant" is not defined,
and the Administrator has the discretion to
interpret it in a reasonable manner to
effectuate the purposes of section 231. We
anticipate that the Administrator would
consider a variety of factors in determining
what approach to take in setting the standard
or standards, and the EPA would provide
notice and an opportunity to comment on the
proposed standards before finalizing them.
B. The Data Used To Evaluate the
Proposed Cause or Contribute Finding
The Administrator's assessment of whether
emissions from the engines used in covered
aircraft cause or contribute to lead air
pollution is informed by estimates of lead
emissions from the covered aircraft, lead
concentrations in air at and near airports that
are attributable to lead emissions from piston
engines used in covered aircraft, and potential
future conditions.
As used in this proposai, the term,
"covered aircraft" refers to all aircraft and
ultralight vehicles equipped with covered
engines which, in this context, means any
aircraft engine that is capable ofusing leaded
avgas. Examples of covered aircraft would
include smaller piston-powered aircraft such
9 EPA (2013) ISA for Lead. "Summary." p. xcvi.
EPA, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-10/075F, 2013.
97 The lead air pollutant we are considering in this
proposed finding can occur as elemental lead or in lead-
containing compounds, and this definition of the air
pollutant recognizes the range of chemical forms of lead
emitted by engines in covered aircraft.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
as the Cessna 172 (single-engine aircraft) and
the Beechcraft Baron G58 (twin-engine
aircraft), as well as the largest piston- engine
aircraft-the Curtiss C--46 and the Douglas
DC-6. Other examples of covered aircraft
would include rotorcraft, such as the
Robinson R44 helicopter, light-sport aircraft,
and ultralight vehicles equipped with piston
engines. The vast majority of covered aircraft
are piston-engine powered.
In recent years, covered aircraft are
estimated to be the largest single source of
lead to air in the U.S. Since 2008, as
described in Section 11.A.2.b of this
document, lead emissions from covered
aircraft are estimated to have contributed over
50 percent of all lead emitted to the air
nationally. The EPA estimates 470 tons of
lead were emitted by covered aircraft in 2017,
comprising 70 percent of lead emitted to air
nationally that year.198 In approximately 1,000
counties in the U.S., the EPA's emissions
inventory identifies covered aircraft as the
sole source of lead emissions. Among the
1,872 counties in the U.S. for which the
inventory identifies multiple sources of lead
emissions, including engine emissions from
covered aircraft, the contribution of aircraft
engine emissions ranges from 0.0006 to 0.26
tons per year, comprising 0.0065 to 99.98
percent (respectively) of total lead emissions
to air in those counties from covered
aircraft. I9? Covered aircraft activity, as
measured by the number of hours flown
nationwide, increased nine percent in the
period from 2012 through 2019.298 General
aviation activity, largely conducted by
covered aircraft, increased up to 52 percent at
airports that are among the busiest in the
U.S.299 In future years, while piston-engine
aircraft activity overall is projected to
decrease slightly, this change in activity is not
projected to occur uniformly across airports in
the U.S.; some airports are forecast to have
increased activity by general aviation aircraft,
the majority of which is conducted by piston-
engine aircraft.3 Although there is some
uncertainty in these projections, they indicate
that lead emissions from covered aircraft may
increase at somc airports in the future."I
Additionally, engine emissions of lead from
covered aircraft may deposit in the local
environment and, due to the small size of the
lead-bearing particles emitted by engines in
covered aircraft, these particles may disperse
9 The lead inventories for 2008, 2011 and 2014 are
provided in the EPA (2018b) Report on the Environment
Exhibit 2. Anthropogenic lead emissions in the U.S.
Available at https://
cfpub.epa.gov/roe/indicator.cf?i= 13i2. The lead
inventories for 2017 are available at https://
www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/20l7- national-
emissions-inventory-nei-data#dataq.
%% Airport lead annual emissions data used were reported
in the 2017 NEI. Available at https://
widely in the environment. Therefore,
because lead is a persistent pollutant in the
environment, we anticipate current and future
emissions of lead from covered aircraft
engines may contribute to exposures and
uptake by humans and biota into the future.
In evaluating the contributions of engine
emissions from covered aircraft
www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories2017- national-
emissions-inventory-nei-data. In addition to the triennial
NEI, the EPA collects from state, local, and Tribal air
agencies point source data for larger sources cvcry year
(see https://www.epa.gov/ air-emissions-inventories/air-
emissions-reporting- requirements-aerr for specific
emissions thresholds). While these data are not typically
published as a new NEI, they are available publicly upon
request and are also included in https://www.epa.gov/air-
emissions-modeling/emissions- modeling-platforms, which
arc created for years other than the triennial NEI years.
County estimates of lead emissions from non-aircraft
sources used in this action are from the 2019 inventory.
There are 3,012 counties and statistical equivalent areas
where EPA estimates en gi ne emissions of lead occur.
298pA. General Aviation and Pant 135 Activity
Surveys-CY 2019. Chapter 3: Primary and Actual
Use. Table 1.3 General Aviation and Part 135
Total Hours Flown by Aircraft Type 2008-2019 (Hours in
Thousands). Retrieved on Dec., 27, 2021 at
https://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation
data_statistics/general_aviation/CY2019
199Geidosch. Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ--
0AR-2022-0389. Past Trends and Future
Projections in General Aviation Activity and Emissions.
June 1, 2022. Docket ID EPA-HQ -2022-- 0389.
0geidosch. Memorandum to Docket EPA--HQ--
OAR-2022-0389. Past Trends and Future
Projections in General Aviation Activity and Emissions.
June 1, 2022. Docket ID EPA--HQ-2022-0389.
0FAA TAF Fiscal Years 2020-2045 describes the
forecast method, data sources, and review process for the
TAF estimates. 'The documentation for the TAF is available
at https://taffaa.gov/ Downloads/TIAFSummaryfY2020-
2045.pdf.
to lead air pollution, as defined in Section V.A
of this document, the EPA also considers lead
concentrations in the ambient air-monitored
concentrations, modeled concentrations, and
model-extrapolated estimates of lead
concentrations. Lead concentrations
monitored in the ambient air typically
quantify lead compounds collected as
suspended particulate matter. The information
gained from air monitoring and air quality
modeling provides insight into how lead
emissions from piston engines used in
covered aircraft can affect lead concentrations
in air.
a00 Carr et. al., 2011. Development and evaluation of an
air quality modeling approach to assess near- field impacts
of lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft operating on
leaded aviation gasoline.
Atmospheric Environment, 45 (32), 5795--5804.
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv
01.,07.017.
10 ppA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of
Airbome Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports. 'Table 6.
EPA-420--R--20-003, 2020. Available at
htups://nepis.epa. go/Exe/ZyPDE cg@?Dockey
PI00YG52.pdf
20» arr et al., 20IL, Development and evaluation of an
air quality modeling approach to assess near- field impacts
62778
As described in Section 11.A.3 of this
document, the EPA has conducted air quality
modeling at two airports and extrapolated
modeled estimates of lead concentrations to
13,000 airports with piston-engine aircraft
activity. These studies indicate that over a
three-month averaging time (the averaging
time for the Lead NAAQS), the engine
emissions of lead from covered aircraft are
estimated to contribute to air lead
concentrations to a distance of at least 500
meters downwind from a runway, 200201 202
Additional studies have reported that lead
emissions from covered aircraft may have
increased concentrations of lead in air by one
to two orders of magnitude at locations
proximate to aircraft emissions compared to
nearby locations not impacted by a source of
lead air emissions,203 204 205206207
In 2008 and 20 10, the EPA enhanced the
lead monitoring network by requiring
monitors to be placed in areas with sources
such as industrial facilities and airports, as
described further in Section II.A.3 of this
document307308 As part of this 2010
requirement to expand lead monitoring
nationally, the EPA required a 1-year
monitoring study of 15 additional airports
with estimated lead emissions between 0.50
and I .0 ton per year in an effort to better
understand how these emissions affect
concentrations of lead in the air at and near
airports. Further, to help evaluate airport
characteristics that could lead to ambient lead
concentrations that approach or exceed the
lead NAAQS, airports for this I-year
monitoring study were selected based on
factors such as the level of activity of covered
aircraft and the predominant use of one
runway due to wind patterns. Monitored lead
concentrations in ambient air are highly
sensitive to monitor location relative to the
location of the run-up areas for piston-engine
aircraft and other localized areas of elevated
lead concentrations relative to the air monitor
locations.
The lead monitoring study at airports began
in 2011. In 2012, air monitors were placed in
close proximity to the run-up areas at the San
Carlos Airport (starting on March 10, 2012)
and the
McClellan-Palomar Airport (starting on
March 16, 2012). The concentrations of lead
measured at both of these airports in 2012
of lead emissions from piston-engine aircraft operating on
leaded aviation gasoline, Atmospheric Environment, 45
(32), 5795--5804. DOI: htups:/dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.atmosen». 2011.07.017.
a0 Heiken et al., 2014. Quantifying Aircraft Lead
Emissions at Airports. ACRP Report 133, Available at
http.s://www.nap.edu/catalog/22 142/quantifying- aircraft-
lead-emissions-at-airports.
0» Hudda et al., 2022. Substantial Near-Field Air
Quality Improvements at a General Aviation Airport
Following a Runway Shortening. Environmental Science &
Technology. DOE: 10.1021/ acs.est. 1c06765.
a06 FR 66965 (Nov. 12, 2008).
07 FR 81226 (Dec. 27, 2010).
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
were above the level of the lead NAAQS, Taking into consideration the data and
with the highest measured levels of lead in information summarized in Section V of this
total suspended particles over a rolling three- document, the Administrator proposes to find
month average of0.33 micrograms per cubic that engine emissions of the lead air pollutant
meter of air at the San Carlos Airport and 0.17 from covered aircraft cause or contribute to
micrograms per cubic meter of air at the the lead air pollution that may reasonably be
McClellan-Palomar Airport. These anticipated to endanger public health and
concentrations violate the primary and welfare. In reaching this proposed conclusion,
secondary lead NAAQS, which are set at a the Administrator notes that piston-engine
level of 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter of aircraft operate on leaded avgas. That
air measured in total suspended particles, as operation emits lead-
an average of three consecutive monthly
coIIcenLr alinIs.
In recognition of the potential for lead
concentrations to exceed the lead NAAQS in
ambient air near the area of maximum
concentration at airports, the EPA further
conducted an assessment of airports
nationwide, titled "Model- extrapolated
Estimates of Airborne Lead Concentrations at
U.S. Airports" and described in Section II.A.3
of this document.208 The model-extrapolated
lead concentrations estimated in this study are
attributable solely to emissions from engines
in covered aircraft operating at the airports
evaluated and did not include other sources of
lead emissions to air. The EPA identified four
airports with the potential for lead
concentrations above the lead NAAQS due to
lead emissions from engines used in covered
aircraft.
Additional information regarding the
contribution of engine emissions of lead from
covered aircraft to lead air pollution is
provided by the EPA's Air Toxics Screening
Assessment. As described and summarized in
Section IL.A.3 of this document, the EPA's Air
Toxics Screening Assessment estimates that
piston engines used in aircraft contribute
more than 50 percent of the lead
concentration in over half of the census tracts
in the U.,310
The EPA also notes that lead emissions
from engines in covered aircraft are present in
three of the ten areas in the U.S. currently
designated as nonattainment for the 2008 lead
NAAQS. These areas are Arecibo, PR, and
Hayden, AZ, each of which include one
airport servicing covered aircraft, and the Los
Angeles County-South Coast Air Basin, CA,
which contains at least 22 airports within its
nonattainment area boundary.311312 Although
the lead emissions from aircraft are not the
predominant source of airborne lead in these
areas, the emissions from covered aircraft
may increase ambient air lead concentrations
in these areas.
C. Proposed Cause or Contribution Finding
for Lead
108 EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of
Airborne Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports Table 6.
EPA- 420-R--20-003, 2020. Available at
https://epis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDEcgi?Dockey=
PI00YG52.pdf.
0EPA's 20I7 Air'ToxScreen is available at
http.s://www.epa.gov/AirloxScreen.
56uth Coast Air Quality Management District
(2012) Adoption of 2012 Lead SIP Los Angeles
County by South Coast Governing Board, p.3-11, Table 3--
3, Available at https://www.aqmd.gow home/air-
quality/clean-air-plans/lead-state- implementation-plan.
The South Coast Air Quality Management District
identified 22 airports in the Los Angeles County-South
Coast Air Basin nonattainment area; the Whiteman Airport
is among those in the nonattainment area and the EPA
estimated activity at this airport may increase lead
concentrations to levels above the lead NAAQS in the
report, Model-extrapolated Estimates of Airborne Lead
Concentrations at U.S. Airports.
Table 7. EPA, Washington, DC, EPA- 420-R-20-- 003,
2020. Available at https://epis.epa.gov/Exel
ZyP DE.cgi?Dockey-PI00YG52.pdf.
2pPA provides updated information regarding
non attainment areas at this website: https://
www.epa.gov/green-book/green-book-lead-2008- area-
information.
containing compounds into the air,
contributing to lead air pollution in the
environment. As explained in Section II.A of
this document, once emitted from covered
aircraft, lead may be transported and
distributed to other environmental media, and
present the potential for human exposure
through air and non-air pathways before the
lead is removed to deeper soils or waterbody
sediments. In reaching this proposed finding,
the Administrator takes into consideration
different air quality scenarios in which
emissions of the lead air pollutant from
engines in covered aircraft may cause or
contribute to lead air pollution. Among these
considerations, he places weight on the fact
that current lead emissions from covered
aircraft arc an important source of air-related
lead in the environment and that engine
emissions of lead from covered aircraft are
the largest single source of lead to air in the
U.S. in recent years. In this regard, he notes
that these emissions contributed over 50
percent of lead emissions to air starting in
2008, when approximately 560 tons of lead
was emitted by engines in covered aircraft,
and more recently, in 2017, when
approximately 470 tons oflead was emitted
by engines in covered aircraft.209
209 The lead inventories for 2008, 2011 and 2014 are
provided in the U.S. EPA (2018b) Report on the
Environment Exhibit 2. Anthropogenic lead emissions in
the U.S. Available at https://
cfpuh.epa.gov/roe/indicatorcfin?i= 13#2. The lead
inventories for 2017 are available at https://
62779
Additionally, he takes into account the fact
that in some situations lead emissions from
covered aircraft have contributed and may
continue to contribute to air quality that
exceeds the lead NAAQS. The NAAQS are
standards that have been set to protect public
health, including the health of sensitive
groups, with an adequate margin of safety,
and to protect public welfare from any known
or anticipated adverse effects associated with
the presence of the pollutant in the ambient
air. for example, the EPA's monitoring data
show that lead concentrations at two airports,
McClellan-Palomar and San Carlos, violated
the lead NAAQS. The EPA's model-
extrapolated estimates of lead also indicate
that some U.S. airports may have air lead
concentrations above the NAAQS in the area
of maximum impact from operation of
covered aircraft,20 Given that the lead
NAAQS are established to protect public
health and welfare, contributions to
concentrations that exceed the lead NAAQS
are of particular concern to the Administrator
and add support for the proposed conclusion
that lead emissions from engines in covered
aircraft cause or contribute to the endangering
air pollution.
The Administrator is also concerned about
the likelihood for these emissions to continue
to be an important source of air-related lead in
the environment in the future, if uncontrolled.
While recognizing that national consumption
of leaded avgas is forecast to decrease slightly
from 2026 to 2041 commensurate with
overall piston- engine aircraft activity, the
Administrator also notes that these changes
are not expected to occur uniformly across the
U.S. For example, he takes note of the FAA
forecasts for airport-specific aircraft activity
out to 2045 that project decreases in activity
by general aviation at some airports, while
projecting increases at other airports.
Although there is some uncertainty in these
projections, they indicate that lead emissions
from covered aircraft may increase at some
airports in the future. Thus, even assuming
that consumption of leaded av gas and general
aviation activity decrease somewhat overall,
as projected, the Administrator anticipates
that current concerns about these sources of
air-related lead will continue into the future,
without controls. Accordingly, the
Administrator is considering both current
levels of emissions and anticipated future
levels of emissions from covered aircraft. In
doing so, the Administrator is proposing to
find that current levels cause or contribute to
pollution that may reasonably be anticipated
to endanger public health and welfare. He
www.epa.gowair-emissions-inventories/2017- national-
emissions-inventory-nei-data#dataq.
110 EPA (2020) Model-extrapolated Estimates of
Airbome Lead Concentrations at U.S. Airports Table 7.
EPA-420-R-20-003, 2020. Available at
https://epis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDE.cgi?Dockey-
P100YG52.pdf.
I Register/Vol. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules
also is laking into consideration the reasonably anticipated to endanger public
projections that some airports may see health and welfare. Accordingly, this action
increases in activity while others see affords no opportunity for the EPA to fashion
decreases, as well as the uncertainties in these for small entities less burdensome compliance
predictions. The Administrator therefore or reporting requirements or timetables or
considers all this information and data exemptions from all or part of the proposal.
collectively to inform his judgment on
whether lead emissions from covered aircraft D. Unfunded Mandates Reform Act
cause or contribute to endangering air (UMRA)
pollution. This action does not contain any unfunded
mandate as described in UMRA, 2 U.S.C.
1531--1538 and does not significantly or
uniquely affect small governments. The acrlon
imposes no enforceable duty on any state,
local or Tribal governments or the private
sector.
Accordingly, for all the reasons described,
the Administrator proposes to conclude that
emissions of the lead air pollutant from
engines in covered aircraft cause or contribute
lo the lead air pollution that may reasonably
be anticipated to endanger public health and
welfare.
62780
VI. Statutory Authority and Executive
Order Reviews
Additional information about these statutes
and Executive Orders can be found at
https://www2.epa.gov/laws- regulations/laws-
and-executive-orders.
A. Executive Order 12866: Regulatory
Planning and Review and Executive
Order 135 63: Improving Regulation and
Regulatory Review
This action is a "significant regulatory
action" because of the cross-agency nature of
this issue. Accordingly, it was submitted to
the Office of Management and Budget
(0MB) for review under Executive Order
12866. This action proposes a finding that
emissions of the lead air pollutant from
engines in covered aircraft cause or contribute
to the lead air pollution that may be
reasonably anticipated to endanger public
health and welfare. Any changes made in
response to 0MB recommendations have
been documented in the docket. B. Paperwork
Reduction Act (PRA)
This action does not impose an information
collection burden under the PRA. The
proposed endangerment and cause or
contribute findings under CAA section
231(a)2)A) do not contain any information
collection activities. C. Regulatory Flexibility
Act (REA)
I certify that this action will not have a
significant economic impact on a substantial
number of small entities under the RFA. This
action will not impose any requirements on
small entities. The proposed endangerment
and cause or contribute findings under CAA
section 231 (a)(2)(A) do not in-and- of-
themselves impose any new requirements but
rather set forth thc Administrator's proposed
finding that emissions of the lead air pollutant
from engines in covered aircraft cause or
contribute to lead air pollution that may be
F e d e r al R e gi ste r/Vol . 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62781
E. Executive Order 13132: Federalism
This action does not have federalism
implications. It will not have substantial direct
effects on the states, on the relationship
between the national government and the
states, or on the distribution of power and
responsibilities among the various levels of
government.
F. Executive Order 13175: Consultation and
Coordination With Indian Tribal
Governments
This action docs not have Tribal
implications as specified in Executive Order
13175. Th e proposed endangerment and cause
or contribute findings under CAA section
231(a)(2)(A) do not in-and-of-themselves
impose any new requirements but rather set
forth the Administrator's proposed findmg that
emissions of the lead air pollutant from
engines in covered aircraft cause or contribute
to lead air pollution that may be reasonably
anticipated to endanger public health and
welfare. Thus, Executive Order 13175 does
not apply to this action.
Tribes have previously submitted comments
to the EPA noting their concerns regarding
potential impacts of lead emitted by piston-
engine aircraft operating on leaded av gas at
airports on, and near, their Reservation
Land."The EPA plans to continue engaging
with Tribal stakeholders on this issue and will
offer a government-to-government
consultation upon request.
G. Executive Order 13045: Protection of
Children From Environmental Health Risks
and Safety Risks
The EPA interprets E.O. 13045 (62 FR
19885, April 23, 1997) as applying only to
those regulatory actions that concern health or
safety risks, such that the analysis required
under section 5--501 of the E.O. has the
potential to influence the regulation. This .
action is not subject to E.O, 13045 because it
does not propose to establish an
environmental standard intended to mitigate
health or safety risks. Although the
Administrator considered health and safety
risks as part of the proposed endangerment
and cause or contribute findings under CAA
"see Docket ID Number EPA--HQ-OAR-2006- 0735.
The Tribes that submitte d comments were:
The Bad River Band of Lake Superior Tribe of
Chippewa Indians, The Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma,
The Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe, The Lone Pine
Paiute-Shoshone Reservation, The Fond du Lac Band of
Lake Superior Chippewa, and The Mille Lacs Band of
Ojibwe.
section 231 (a)(2)(A), the proposed findings
themselves, if finalized, would not impose a
standard intended to mitigate those risks.
While this action is not subject to Executive
Order 13045 in this scenario, the Agency's
Policy on Children's Health?' still applies.
The Administrator considered lead exposure
risks to children as part of this proposed
endangerment finding under CAA section
231(a)2)A). This action's discussion of the
impacts of lead exposure on public health and
welfare is found in Section IV of this
document, and specific discussion with regard
to children are contained in Supplemental
Information Section C, as well as Sections
II.A.5, and IV of this document. A copy of the
documents pertaining to the impacts on
children's health from emissions of lead from
piston-engine aircraft that the EPA references
in this action have been placed 111 the public
docket for this action (Docket EPA--HQ--
OAR-2022-0389).
H. Executive Order 13211: Actions
Concerning Regulations That
Significantly Affect Energy Supply,
Distribution or Use
This action is not a "significant energy
action" because it is not likely to have a
significant ad verse effect on the supply,
distribution or use of energy. Further, we have
concluded that this action is not likely to have
any adverse energy effects because the
proposed endangerment and cause or
contribute findings under section 23 l(a)(2)(A)
do not in-and-of themselves impose any new
requirements but rather set forth the
Administrator's proposed finding that
emissions of the lead air pollutant from
engines in covered aircraft cause or contribute
to lead air pollution that may be reasonably
anticipated to endanger public health and
welfare.
I. National Technology Transfer and
Advancement ct (NTTAA)
This action does not involve technical
standards.
J. Executive Order 12898: Federal
Actions To Address Environmental
Justice in Minority Populations and Low-
Income Populations
The EPA believes this action will not have
potentially disproportionately high and
adverse human health or environmental effects
on people of color, low-income, or indigenous
populations because this action does not affect
the level of protection provided to human
health or the environment. The Administrator
considered the potential for lead exposure
risks to people of color, low-income, and
indigenous populations as part of this
proposed endangerment finding under CAA
section 23 l(a)(2)(A). This action's discussion
of lead exposure impacts on public health and
welfare is found in Section IV of this
document. Specific discussion focused on
environmental justice with regard to people of
color, low-income, and indigenous
populations are found in Supplemental
Information Section D, as well as Sections
II.A.5, and Section IV of this document. A
copy of the documents pertaining to the EPA's
analysis of potential environmental justice
concerns related to this action have been
placed in the public docket for this action
(Docket EPA--HQ-OAR-2022--0389).
K. Determination Under Section 307(d)
Section 307(d)(l)(V) of the CAA provides
that the provisions of section 307(d) apply to
"such other actions as the administrator may
determine." Pursuant to section 307(d)(l)(V),
the Administrator determines that this action is
subject to the provisions of section 307(d).
VII. Statutory Provisions and Legal
Authority
Statutory authority for this action comes
from 42 U.S.C. 7571, 7601 and 7607.
List of Subjects
40 CFR Parts 87 and 1031
Environmental protection, Air
pollution control, Aircraft, Aircraft
engines. 40 CFR Part 1068
a1 EPA (2021) EPA Policy on Children's Health.
Available at https://www.epa.gov/system/files/
documents/2021-10/2021-policy-on-childrens- health.pdf.
F e d e r a l R e g is t e r /V o l. 87, No. 199/Monday, October 17, 2022/Proposed Rules 62782
Environmental protection,
Administrative practice and procedure,
Confidential business information,
Imports, Motor vehicle pollution,
Penalties, Reporting and recordkeeping
requirements, Warranties.
M ich a el S. Regan, Administrator.
[FR Doc. 2022-22223 Filed 10-14-22; 8:4 5 am]
BIL.LING CODE 6560-50-P
FAA APPROVED MODEL LIST (AML ) NO. SE0I966WI
general Aviation 01o difictions, /.
USE OF GAMI G 1 00UL HIGH OCTANE UNLEADED AV GAS IN SPARK IGNITION PISTON AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Add tfe following approved fuel .:
Unle aded avia tion gasoline per AM I Specific ation $100UL-12C-2, or ater FAA Accepted revisio n Comingling is approv ed wit~ ST
gasoline and other gasolines wit 100M0N or less, including Mo9as, where those gasoline s are also approved for tfe same make
an
CITY COMMISSION EXHIBIT B
Cert Basis I Master Data List Initial
Item Engine Make Engine Model TCDS Approval Amendment
Amendment Document Revision* I FAA
No. Approved Date Date Date
1 Aeronca Aircraft E-113, A,B, C Not listed in ATC71 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 91112022 Corporation the TCDS Areonca
2 Aeronca Aircraft E-107A Not listed in Group 2 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/2812022 NIA 91112022 Corporation theTCDS Aeronca
3 Air Repair, Inc. W670-6A (R-670-3, -5), -6N (R-670-4), -16 (R- Aero Bull. 7-A, E-162 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021 670-8,-11, -1 IA), -23, -24,-K, -M CAR13
4 Air Repair, Inc. R-755S, -755SM FARPart33 ElSW 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/2812021
5 Air Repair, Inc. R-755Al,A2,A2M,A2Ml, Bl, B2, B2M, E CAR13 E-237 06-9920000 Rev A, 9D29/2021 NIA 1012812021
6 Air Repair, Inc. L-4, -4M, -4MA, -4MA7, -4MB; Not listed in TC 121 06-9920000 Rev A, 9D29/2021 NIA 1012812021 Military R-755-9 theTCDS
7 Air Repair, Inc. L-5, -5M, -5MB Not listed in TC 156 06-9920000 Rev A, 9D29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021 theTCDS
8 Air Repair, Inc. L-6, -6M, -6MA, -6MB, -6 MB A, -6MN; Not listed in TC 195 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021 Military R-915-3, -5,-7 theTCDS
9 Aircooled Motors, Inc. Fr ankli n 6V6-245-B16F (0-425-1) Not listed in E-258 06-9920000 Rev A, 9D29/2021 NIA 1012812021 theTCDS
502/54, 6A, 7A, 8; 503/5A, 6A, 7A, 8;
10 Alvis Limited 504/5A4, 6A, 7A, 8; CAR 10 E-299 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 9/1/2022
51415, SA, 6, 6A, 7, 7A, 8, 8A; 531/8, 8B;
American Cirrus Hi-Drive Mark III Not listed in ATC60 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022 11 Engines, Inc. theTCDS
Arrow Aircraft & V-8Model F Not listed in ATC 151 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/2812022 NIA 91112022 12 Motor Corp. theTCDS Arrow
M Grade 10CL£ aviation
d model engi nes.
O r later FA A A pproved re vision
T he approved engine operating pow er settings for engi nes dera te d (fr om 1I5/145 avgas)
fo r opera tion on 100/130 or IO 0L L, do not change fo r ope ration on G lO 0U L A vgas. Page I of 17
FAA APPROVE D MODEL LIST (AML ) NO. SE01966WI
General Aviation 1gdifications, /.
USE OF GAMI GI OOUL HIGH OCTANE UNLEADED AV GAS IN SPARK IGNITION PISTON AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Add tfe following approved fuel :
Unle aded avia tion gasoline per MI Specification $100UL-12C-2, or ater FAA Accepted revision. Comingling is approved wit SIM Grade 100£L aviation
gasoline and other gasolines wit 100M09 or fess, including Mo~as, wfere those gasolines are also approved for tfe same make an
13 BMW Triebwerkbau GO-480-BIA6 CAR 10 7El 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021 GmbH.
14 Bristol Siddeley Gipsy Not listed in Group 3 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 5/5/2022 Engines, Ltd. theTCDS Bristol
15 BRP-Rotax GmbH & 912 F2, F3, F4, S2, S3, S4; FARPart33 E00051EN 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022 Co KG 915 iSc2 C24, iSc3 C24
16 BRP-Rotax GmbH & 914 F2, F3, F4 FAR Part 33 E00058NE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/2812022 NIA 911/2022 CoKG
17 Comet Engine 7-E Not listed in ATC47 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 9/1/2022 Corporation theTCDS
18 Continental IO-470-G, -R CAR 13 3El 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021
19 Continental A-50-1,-2,-3,-4,-4J,-5,-5J, -6, -6J,- CAR 13 E-190 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021 7,-7J,-8,-8J, -9,-9J
20 Continental I0-360-B, -AF CAR 13,FAR EICE 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 1012812021 Part 33
Cert Basis I Master Data List Initial Amendment Item Engine Make Engine Model TCDS Document Revision* I FAA Approval Amendment No. Approved Date Date Date
21 Continental I0-360-A, -C, -D,-E, -G, -H, -J, -K, -AB, -CB, - CAR 13,FAR ElCE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 9/1/2022 DB, -GB, -HB, -JB, -KB, -ES Part 33
A-65-1,-3,-6, -6J, -7, -8 (O-170-3, -7), -8F, -8FJ,
22 Continental -8J, -9 (O-170-5), -9F, -9FJ, -9J, -12, -12F, -12FJ,- CAR13 E-205 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/D29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021
12J, -14,-14F, -14FJ, -14J
23 Continental A75-3, -6, -6J, -8, -8F, -8J, -8FJ, -9,-9J TC 213 E-213 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
C75-8, -8F, -8FH, -8FHJ, -8FJ, -8J, -12, -12B, -
12BF, -12BFH, -12F, -12FH, -12FHJ, -12FJ, -12J, -
24 Continental 15,-15F; CAR13 E-233 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
C85-8, -8F, -8FI, -8FHJ, -8J, -12, -12F, -12FH, -
12FHJ, -12FJ, -12J, -14F, -15, -15F
25 Continental C-115-1,-2; C-125- CARI3 E-236 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021 1,-2
26 Continental A100-1,-2 CAR13 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021
27 Continental R9-A CAR13 E-241 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
E-245
E165-2, -3, -4;
28 Continental E185-1, -2, -3 (Military O-470-7,-7A), -5,-8, -9 CAR 13 E-246 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
(Military O-470-7B), -10,-11
Or later FAA Approved revision
The approved engine operating power settings for engines derated (from 115/145 avgas)
for operation on 100/130 or 100LL, do not change for operation on GlO0ULAvgas. Page2 ofl7
FAA APPROVED MODEL LIST (AML) NO. SE0I966WI
General Aviation 01edifications, 'nE.
USE OF GAMI G 1 0OUL HIGH OCTANE UNLEADED AV GAS IN SPARK IGNITION PISTON AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Add the following appr oved fuef :
Unle ade d avia tion gasoline per ~MI Specific ation Q100UL-12C-2, or eater EA Accepted revisio n. Comingl ing is approved witf STM Grade 100LL avia tion
gasoline and otfer gasolines wi th 100M0N or less, including Moas, where tfose gasolines are also approved for the same make an
C90-8F, -8FJ, -12F, -12FJ, -12FH, -12FP, -14F, CAR 13,FAR 29 Continental -I4FH, -I4FJ, -16F; E-252 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/2912021 NIA 10128/2021
O-200-A, -B, -C, -D, -X Part 33
30 Continental C145-2, -2H, -2HP; 0-300-A, CAR 13 E-253 06-9920000 Rev A, 929/2021 NIA 10128/2021 -B,-C,-D,-E
31 Continental E225-2, -4,-8, -9 CAR13 E-267 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 N/A 10128/2021
32 Continental O-470-4, -11, -11B, -11B-CI, -1I-CI, -13,-13A, CAR13 E-269 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/2912021 NIA 10/28/2021 -15
O-470-A, -B, -B-CI, -E, -G, -G-CI, -H, -J, -K-CI,
33 Continental -K, -L-CI, -L, -M, -M-CI, -N, -P, -R, -S, -T,-U; IO- CAR 13 E-273 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
470-A, -C
34 Continental FSO-470-A CAR 13 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/2912021 NIA 10/28/2021
35 Continental GO-300-A, -B, -C, -D, -E, -F CARl3 kl 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
E-298
36 Continental IO-346-A, -B CAR 13 E3CE 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/2912021 NIA 10128/2021
37 Continental RR 0-300-A, -B, -C, -D CARl0 E4IN 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
38 Continental W-670K-1, M-I Not listed in TC 168 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021 theTCDS
1O470-D, -E, -F, -H, -J, -K,-L, -LO, -M, -N,
39 Continental -P,-S, -T,-U, -V, -VO; L/IO-470-A CAR13 3El 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 51512022
40 Continental TSIO-470-B, -C, -D CAR13 3E3 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 91112022
41 Continental 6-320-B FAR Part 33 EISO 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 9/1/2022
42 Continental 6-260-A FAR Part 33 EllCE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 9/1/2022 . - .
Cert Basis I Master Data List Initial Amendment Item Engine Make Engine Model Amendment TCDS Document Revision I FAA Approval Date No. Approved Date Date
43 Continental RR O-240-A FARPart2l EllEU 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 9/112022
44 Continental 6-285-A, -B, -BA, -C, -CA FARPart33 El2CE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022
45 Continental 1O-370-CIF, -CL, -CM, -D3A, -DA3A CFRPart33 E00056SE 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 9/1/2022
46 Continental 0-470-T, -U CAR 13 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 5/5/2022
47 Continental O-470-2 CARl3 E-273 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 9/1/2022
E-281
48 Continental GSO-526-A CAR13 E-303 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 9/1/2022
49 Continental GIO-470-A CAR13 E2CE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 N/A 91112022
50 Continental I0-550-A,-B, -C, -D,-E, -F, -G, -L,-N,-P, -R; FAR Part33 E3SO 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 91112022 1OF-550-B, -C, -D,-E, -F, -L, -N, -P, -R
51 Continental TS1OL-550-A, -B, -C FARPart33 E4SO 06-9920000 Rev B, 228/2022 NIA 91112022
d model engines.
Or later FAA Approved revision
The approved engine operating power settings for engines derated (fro m 115/145 avgas)
for operation on 100/130 or 100LL, do not change for operation on GI00ULAvgas. Page3 ofl7
FAA AP P R O V E D M O D E L LI S T (A M L ) N O . S E 0 1 9 6 6 W I
G en e r a l A vi a t i o n 01e d ifi c a t i o n s , /n e .
USE OF GAMI Gl00UL HIGH OCTANE UNLEADED AVGAS IN SPARK IGNITION PISTON AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Add tRe following approved fuel:
Unle aded avia tion gasoline per $AMI Specification 100UL-12C-2, or ater EA Accepted revisio n Comingling is approved with $TM grade 100££ aviation
gasoline and other gasolines with 100M0N or less, including Mo9as, were those gasolines are also approved for tfe same make an
52 Continental TSIO-550-A, -B, -C, -E, -G, -J, -K, -N; TSIOF- FAR Part 33 E5SO 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022 550-D, -J, -K, -P
53 Continental GTS1O-520-C, -D, -E, -F, -H, -K, -L, -M, -N CAR13,FAR E7CE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 9/1/2022 Part 33
54 Continental IO-240-A, -B; 1OF-240-B FARPart33 E7SO 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/2812022 NIA 91112022
TS1O-520-A, -AE, -AF, -B, -BB, -BE, -C, -CE, -D,
55 Continental -DB, -E, -EB, -G, -H, -J, -JB , -K, -KB, -L, -LB, -M, CAR13 E8CE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022 -N, -NB, -P, -R, -T, -U, -UB, -VB, -WB; LTSIO-
520-AE
TSIO-360-A, -AB, -B, -BB , -C, -CB, -D, -DB,
56 Continental -E, -EB, -F, -FB, -G, -GB, -H, -HB, -JB, FARPart33 E9CE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 91112022 -KB, -LB, -MB, -NB, -PB, -RB, -SB;
LTSIO-360-E, -EB, -KB, -RB;
10-520-A, -B, -BA, -BB, -C, -CB, -D, -E, -F, CAR 13, FAR 57 Continental Motors Inc -J,-K,-L, -M , -MB, -N, -NB, -P; LIO-520- E5CE 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022
p Part 33
58 Continental Motors Inc A-80-5J, -8, -8J, -9,-9J Not listed in TC217 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 91112022 theTCDS
59 Continental Motors Inc A-40, -2,-3,-4 Not listed in ATC72 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022 the TCDS Teledyne
60 Continental Motors Inc R-670-B,-D, -F, -H Not listed in ATC 120 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021 theTCDS
61 Continental Motors Inc A-40-5 Not listed in ATC 174 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021 theTCDS
62 Continental Motors Inc A-70, -2 Not listed in ATC32 06-9920000 Rev A, 9D29/2021 NIA 10/28/2021 theTCDS
63 Continental Motors Inc R-670, -A, -C, -E, -G Not listed in ATC80 06-9920000 Rev A, 9D29/2021 NIA 10128/2021 theTCDS
Master Data Lis: Initial
Item Engine Make Engine Model Cert Basis I TCDS Approval Amendment
Amendment Document Revision* I FAA
Date Date
No. Approved Date
Cyclone 702C9GCI, 2,3,4,5, 6 (GR-1820G-
202A, Military R-1820-60, -71);
Cyclone 704C9GC1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (GR-1820G-205A, Not listed in 64 Curtiss- Wright Military R-1820-87, -95); theTCDS E-219 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021
Cyclone 728C9GC1, 2, 3,4,5, 6;
Cyclone 730C9GD1, 2, 3,4,5,6; Cyclone
731C9GCI, 2
Or later FAA Approved revision
The approved engine operating power settings for engines derated (from I5/145 avgas)
for operation on 100/130 or IO0LL, do not change for operation on GI00ULAvgas. Page 4 of 17
FAA AP P R O V E D M O D E L L I S T (A M L ) N O . S E 0 1 9 6 6 W I
C e n e e a l Aviation 0todifiearions, 'e.
USE OF GAMI G IO0UL HIGH OCTANE UNLEADED AV GAS IN SPARK IGNITION PISTON AIRCRAFT ENGINES
Add tfe following appr oved fu el :
Unleaded aviation gasoline per $MI Specification S100UL-12C-2, or ater EA Accepted revision Com ing ling is approved with $TM grade 100.£ aviation
gasoline and other gasolines wit 100M09 or less, including Mo~as, wfere those gasolines are also appr oved for tfe same make an
65 Curtiss-Wright Cyclone 957C7BA1 Not listed in E-261 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/2912021 NIA 1012812021 theTCDS
66 Curtiss-Wright Cyclone 990C7BA 1 Not listed in E-289 06-9920000 Rev A, 9/29/2021 NIA 10128/2021 theTCDS
Cyclone 95SC9HE1, 2; Cyclone
959C9HE1, 2;
Cyclone 960C9HE1, 2;
Cyclone 961C9HE1, 2;
Cyclone 962C9HE1, 2;
Not listed in 67 Curtiss-Wright Cyclone 963C9HE1, 2; E-259 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 911/2022
Cyclone 967C9HE2; theTCDS
Cyclone 968C9HE1, 2 (Military R-1820-80);
Cyclone969C9HE1, 2;
Cyclone 982C9HE1, 2, 3;
Cyclone 989C9HE1, 2 (Military R-1820-82, -82B)
68 Curtiss-Wright Double Row Cyclone 956Cl8CA1, 975Cl8CBI Not listed in E-270 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 9/1/2022 theTCDS
69 Curtiss-Wright Double Row Turbo Cyclone 972TC18DA1 Not listed in E-272 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/2812022 NIA 91112022 (Military R-3350-34, -91), 2, 3, 4 the TCDS
Double Row Turbo Cyclone 981 TC18EAI; Not listed in 70 Curtiss-Wright Double Row Turbo Cyclone 988TC18EA1, 2, 3, theTCDS E-287 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 9/1/2022
4,5, 6
Double Row Cyclone 739Cl8BA3; Not listed in 71 Curtiss-Wright Double Row Cyclone 745C18BA3, 4; theTCDS E-218 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 NIA 91112022
Double Row Cyclone 749C18BD1, 3
Cyclone 736C9HD1, 2,3,4;
Cyclone 737C9HD1, 2, 3, 4;
Curtiss-Wright Cyclone 740C9HD1, 2; Not listed in E-243 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/28/2022 N/A 51512022 72 Cyclone 977C9HDI, 2, 3; theTCDS
Cyclone 989C9HD1;
Cyclone 987C9HD1
Curtiss-Wright Cyclone 742Cl4BB1, 2, 3 Not listed in E-248 06-9920000 Rev B, 2/2812022 NIA 9/112022 73 theTCDS
Or later FAA Approved revision
Th e appro ved en gin e opera tin g pow er settin gs for engin es dera ted (fr om 115/145 avgas )
for operation on 100/130 or 100LL, do not change for operation on GI00ULAvgas. Page 5 of17
(
I
gxr+ 9 sere
City of Pembroke Pines, FL
Agenda Request Form
Agenda Number:
601 City Center Way
Pembroke Pines, FL
33025
www.ppines.com
File ID: 2023-R-25
Version:
Type: Resolution
Agenda
Section:
Short Title: Urging BC to fund N. Perry Airport Implement/Produce
Findings of a Study
Status: Passed
In Control: City Commission
File Created: 07/24/2023
Final Action: 08/16/2023
Title: MOTION TO ADOPT PROPOSED RESOLUTION NO 2023-R-25.
A RESOLUTION OF THE CITY COMMISSION OF THE CITY OF
PEMBROKE PINES, FLORIDA, STRONGLY URGING BROWARD COUNTY
AS THE OWNER AND MANAGER OF NORTH PERRY AIRPORT TO FUND,
IMPLEMENT, AND PRODUCE THE FINDINGS OF A STUDY TO ASSESS
THE LEAD CONCENTRATION LEVELS IN AND AROUND THE AIRPORT
AND W ITHIN THE SURROUNDING RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITY;
PROVIDING FOR TRANSMITTAL; PROVIDING FOR CONFLICTS;
PROVIDING FOR SEVERABILITY; PROVIDING FOR AN EFFECTIVE
DATE.
Agenda Date: 08/16/2023
Agenda Number:
Internal Notes:
Enactment Date: 08/16/2023
Enactment Number: 3830
Attachments: 1. 2023-Resolution - North Perry Airport Community Advisory Committee (w-e...
Indexos:
Related Files:
City Commission 08/16/2023 adopt Pass
Action Text: An amended motion was made by Commissioner Good, Jr., seconded by Commissioner Schwartz,
to adopt Proposed Resolution 2023-R-25 to urge Broward County to fund, implement and produce
the findings and recommendations of a comprehensive study of lead concentration levels in the air
and other particular matter present in and around North Perry Airport and within the surrounding
residential community. The motion carried by the following vote:
Aye:- 4 Vice Mayor Siple, Commissioner Schwartz, Commissioner Good Jr., and
Commissioner Castillo
Nay:.- 0
Absent: - Mayor Ortis
City Commission 08/16/2023 amend Pass
City of Pembroke Pines, FL Page 1 Printed on 8/17/2023
Agenda Request Form Continued(2023-R-25)
Action Text: An motion was made by Commissioner Schwartz, seconded by Commissioner Good Jr., to adopt
the motion as amended for Proposed Resolution 2023-R-25. The motion carried by the following
vote:
Aye:- 4 Vice Mayor Siple, Commissioner Schwartz, Commissioner Good Jr., and
Commissioner Castillo
Nay:- 0
Absent:- 1 Mayor Ortis
SUMMARY EXPLANATION AND BACKGROUND:
1. The North Perry Airport is a general aviation airport located entirely within the City of
Pembroke Pines that is owned and managed by Broward County.
2. The North Perry Airport provides in its Airport Master Record filed with the Federal Aviation
Administration on June 15, 2023 that there are 411 single and multiengine aircrafts based at
the airport; and 195,192 total aircraft operations were reported by the Airport in Fiscal Year
2021.
3. The Environmental Protection Agency has cited piston engine aircrafts operating on leaded
fuel as the largest remaining aggregate source of lead emissions to air in the United States;
and the types of planes operating at the North Perry Airport are of the kind that are usually
fueled by leaded gasoline; and there is broad scientific consensus on the lasting, damaging
effects of lead exposure on all people, but considerably children; and the American Academy of
Pediatrics has provided that lead
toxicity results in substantial population-level effects on children's intellectual abilities, academic
abilities, problem behaviors, and birth weight.
4. The North Perry Airport is abutted by residential and commercial uses on all four sides; and
the North Perry Airport offers leaded and unleaded fuel to aircraft operators on a daily basis.
5.The approval of this resolution by City Commission strongly urges Broward County to fund,
implement, and produce the findings of a comprehensive study of the air pollution levels,
including lead concentration levels, present in and around the North Perry Airport and within the
surrounding residential community.
Item has been reviewed by the Commission Auditor and approved for the Agenda.
FINANCIAL IMPACT DETAIL:
a) Initial Cost: None
b) Amount budgeted for this item in Account No: N/A
c) Source of funding for difference, if not fully budgeted: N/A
d) 5 year projection of the operational cost of the project N/A
Current FY Year2 Year 3 Year4 Year 5
City of Pembroke Pines, FL Page 2 Printed on 8/17/2023
g onda R eq uest Form C onti nu ed (2 o23-R -25]
Revenues
Expenditures
Net Cost
e) Detail of additional staff requirements: N/A
FEASIBILITY REVIEW:
A feasibility review is required for the award, renewal and/or expiration of all function sourcing
contracts. This analysis is to determ ine the financial effectiveness of function sourcing
serv ices.
a) Was a Feasibility Review/Cost Analysis of Out-Sourcing vs. In-House Labor
Conducted for this service? N/A
b) If Yes, what is the total cost or total savings of utilizing Out-Sourcing vs. In-House
Labor for this service? N/A
City of Pembroke Pines, FL Page 3 Printed on 8/17/2023